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For most of its history, China was organized into various dynastic states under the rule of hereditary monarchs. Beginning with the establishment of dynastic rule by Yu the Great c. 2070 BC,[1] and ending with the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor in AD 1912, Chinese historiography came to organize itself around the succession of monarchical dynasties.[a][b] Besides those established by the dominant Han ethnic group or its spiritual Huaxia predecessors, dynasties throughout Chinese history were also founded by non-Han peoples.[7]
Dividing Chinese history into dynastic epochs is a convenient and conventional method of periodization.[8] Accordingly, a dynasty may be used to delimit the era during which a family reigned, as well as to describe events, trends, personalities, artistic compositions, and artifacts of that period.[9] For example, porcelain made during the Ming dynasty may be referred to as "Ming porcelain".[10]
The longest-reigning orthodox dynasty of China was the Zhou dynasty, ruling for a total length of about 790 years, albeit it is divided into the Western Zhou and the Eastern Zhou in Chinese historiography.[11] The largest orthodox Chinese dynasty in terms of territorial size was either the Yuan dynasty or the Qing dynasty, depending on the historical source.[12][13][14][15][16][c]
The term "Tiāncháo" (天朝; "Celestial Dynasty" or "Heavenly Dynasty") was frequently employed as a self-reference by Chinese dynasties.[20][21] As a form of respect and subordination, Chinese tributary states referred to these dynasties as "Tiāncháo Shàngguó" (天朝上國; "Celestial Dynasty of the Exalted State") or "Tiāncháo Dàguó" (天朝大國; "Celestial Dynasty of the Great State").
The Chinese character 朝 (cháo) originally meant "morning" or "today". Subsequently, its scope was extended to refer to the regime of the incumbent ruler. Terms commonly used when discussing historical Chinese dynasties include:
As the founder of China's first orthodox dynasty, the Xia dynasty, Yu the Great is conventionally regarded as the inaugurator of dynastic rule in China.[23][a] In the Chinese dynastic system, sovereign rulers theoretically possessed absolute power and private ownership of the realm, even though in practice their actual power was dependent on numerous factors.[24][e] By tradition, the Chinese throne was inherited exclusively by members of the male line, but there were numerous cases whereby the consort kins came to possess de facto power at the expense of the monarchs.[28][f] This concept, known as jiā tiānxià (家天下; "All under Heaven belongs to the ruling family"), was in contrast to the pre-Xia notion of gōng tiānxià (公天下; "All under Heaven belongs to the public") whereby leadership succession was non-hereditary and based on the abdication system.[24][30]
There may also be a predynastic period before a regime managed to overthrow the existing dynasty which led to the official establishment of the new dynasty. For example, the state of Zhou that existed during the Shang dynasty, before its conquest of the Shang which led to the establishment of the Zhou dynasty, is referred to as the Predynastic Zhou[31] or Proto-Zhou.[32] Similarly, the state of Qin that existed during the Zhou dynasty before its wars of unification and the establishment of the Qin dynasty in 221 BC is also referred to as the Predynastic Qin[33][34] or Proto-Qin.[35]
The rise and fall of dynasties is a prominent feature of Chinese history. Some scholars have attempted to explain this phenomenon by attributing the success and failure of dynasties to the morality of the rulers, while others have focused on the tangible aspects of monarchical rule.[36] This method of explanation has come to be known as the dynastic cycle.[36][37][38]
Cases of dynastic transition (改朝換代; gǎi cháo huàn dài) in the history of China occurred primarily through two ways: military conquest and usurpation.[39] The supersession of the Liao dynasty by the Jin dynasty was achieved following a series of successful military campaigns, as was the later unification of China proper under the Yuan dynasty; on the other hand, the transition from the Eastern Han to the Cao Wei, as well as from the Southern Qi to the Liang dynasty, were cases of usurpation. Oftentimes, usurpers would seek to portray their predecessors as having relinquished the throne willingly—akin to the abdication system of throne succession—as a means to legitimize their rule.[40]
One might incorrectly infer from viewing historical timelines that transitions between dynasties occurred abruptly and roughly. Rather, new dynasties were often established before the complete overthrow of an existing regime.[41] For example, AD 1644 is frequently cited as the year in which the Qing dynasty succeeded the Ming dynasty in possessing the Mandate of Heaven. However, the Qing dynasty was officially proclaimed in AD 1636 by the Emperor Taizong of Qing through renaming the Later Jin established in AD 1616, while the Ming imperial family would rule the Southern Ming until AD 1662.[42][43] The Ming loyalist Kingdom of Tungning based in Taiwan continued to oppose the Qing until AD 1683.[44] Meanwhile, other factions also fought for control over China during the Ming–Qing transition, most notably the Shun and the Xi dynasties proclaimed by Li Zicheng and Zhang Xianzhong respectively.[45][46][47] This change of ruling houses was a convoluted and prolonged affair, and the Qing took almost two decades to extend their rule over the entirety of China proper.
Similarly, during the earlier Sui–Tang transition, numerous regimes established by rebel forces vied for control and legitimacy as the power of the ruling Sui dynasty weakened. Autonomous regimes that existed during this period of upheaval included, but not limited to, Wei (魏; by Li Mi), Qin (秦; by Xue Ju), Qi (齊; by Gao Tancheng), Xu (許; by Yuwen Huaji), Liang (梁; by Shen Faxing), Liang (梁; by Liang Shidu), Xia (夏; by Dou Jiande), Zheng (鄭; by Wang Shichong), Chu (楚; by Zhu Can), Chu (楚; by Lin Shihong), Wu (吳; by Li Zitong), Yan (燕; by Gao Kaidao), and Song (宋; by Fu Gongshi). The Tang dynasty that superseded the Sui launched a decade-long military campaign to reunify China proper.[48]
Frequently, remnants and descendants of previous dynasties were either purged or granted noble titles in accordance with the "two crownings, three respects" system. The latter served as a means for the reigning dynasty to claim legitimate succession from earlier dynasties. For example, the Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei was accorded the title "Prince of Zhongshan" by the Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi following the latter's deposition of the former.[49] Similarly, Chai Yong, a nephew of the Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou, was conferred the title "Duke of Chongyi" by the Emperor Renzong of Song; other descendants of the Later Zhou ruling house came to inherit the noble title thereafter.[50]
According to Chinese historiographical tradition, each new dynasty would compose the history of the preceding dynasty, culminating in the Twenty-Four Histories.[51] This tradition was maintained even after the Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing dynasty in favor of the Republic of China. However, the attempt by the Republicans to draft the history of the Qing was disrupted by the Chinese Civil War, which resulted in the political division of China into the People's Republic of China on mainland China and the Republic of China on Taiwan.[52]
Dynastic rule in China collapsed in AD 1912 when the Republic of China superseded the Qing dynasty following the success of the Xinhai Revolution.[53][54] While there were attempts after the Xinhai Revolution to reinstate dynastic rule in China, they were unsuccessful at consolidating their rule and gaining political legitimacy.
During the Xinhai Revolution, there were numerous proposals advocating for the replacement of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty by a new dynasty of Han ethnicity. Kong Lingyi (孔令貽), the Duke of Yansheng and a 76th-generation descendant of Confucius, was identified as a potential candidate for Chinese emperorship by Liang Qichao.[55] Meanwhile, gentry in Anhui and Hebei supported a restoration of the Ming dynasty under Zhu Yuxun (朱煜勳), the Marquis of Extended Grace.[56] Both suggestions were ultimately rejected.
The Empire of China (AD 1915–1916) proclaimed by Yuan Shikai sparked the National Protection War, resulting in the premature collapse of the regime 101 days later.[57] The Manchu Restoration (AD 1917) was an unsuccessful attempt at reviving the Qing dynasty, lasting merely 11 days.[58] Similarly, the Manchukuo (AD 1932–1945; monarchy since AD 1934), a puppet state of the Empire of Japan during World War II with limited diplomatic recognition, is not regarded as a legitimate regime.[59] Ergo, historians usually consider the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor on 12 February 1912 as the end of the Chinese dynastic system. Dynastic rule in China lasted almost four millennia.[53]
China was politically divided during multiple periods in its history, with different regions ruled by different dynasties. These dynasties effectively functioned as separate states with their own court and political institutions. Political division existed during the Three Kingdoms, the Sixteen Kingdoms, the Northern and Southern dynasties, and the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms periods, among others.
Relations between Chinese dynasties during periods of division often revolved around political legitimacy, which was derived from the doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven.[60] Dynasties ruled by ethnic Han would proclaim rival dynasties founded by other ethnicities as illegitimate, usually justified based on the concept of Hua–Yi distinction. On the other hand, many dynasties of non-Han origin saw themselves as the legitimate dynasty of China and often sought to portray themselves as the true inheritor of Chinese culture and history. Traditionally, only regimes deemed as "legitimate" or "orthodox" (正統; zhèngtǒng) are termed cháo (朝; "dynasty"); "illegitimate" or "unorthodox" regimes are referred to as guó (國; usually translated as either "state" or "kingdom"[g]), even if these regimes were dynastic in nature.[61]
Such legitimacy disputes existed during the following periods:
Traditionally, periods of disunity often resulted in heated debates among officials and historians over which prior dynasties could and should be considered orthodox, given that it was politically imperative for a dynasty to present itself as being linked in an unbroken lineage of moral and political authority back to ancient times. However, the Northern Song statesman Ouyang Xiu propounded that such orthodoxy existed in a state of limbo during fragmented periods and was restored after political unification was achieved.[85] From this perspective, the Song dynasty possessed legitimacy by virtue of its ability to end the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period despite not having succeeded the orthodoxy from the Later Zhou. Similarly, Ouyang considered the concept of orthodoxy to be in oblivion during the Three Kingdoms, the Sixteen Kingdoms, and the Northern and Southern dynasties periods.[85]
Traditionally, as most Chinese historiographical sources uphold the idea of unilineal dynastic succession, only one dynasty could be considered orthodox at any given time.[70] Most historical sources consider the legitimate line of succession to be as follows:[70]
These historical legitimacy disputes are similar to the modern competing claims of legitimacy by the People's Republic of China based in Beijing and the Republic of China based in Taipei. Both regimes formally adhere to the One-China principle and claim to be the sole legitimate representative of the whole of China.[86]
There were several groups of Chinese dynasties that were ruled by families with patrilineal relations, yet due to various reasons these regimes are considered to be separate dynasties and given distinct retroactive names for historiographical purpose. Such conditions as differences in their official dynastic title and fundamental changes having occurred to their rule would necessitate nomenclatural distinction in academia, despite these ruling clans having shared common ancestral origins.
Additionally, numerous other dynasties claimed descent from earlier dynasties as a calculated political move to obtain or enhance their legitimacy, even if such claims were unfounded.
The agnatic relations of the following groups of Chinese dynasties are typically recognized by historians:
The Central Plain is a vast area on the lower reaches of the Yellow River which formed the cradle of Chinese civilization. "Central Plain dynasties" (中原王朝; Zhōngyuán wángcháo) refer to dynasties of China that had their capital cities situated within the Central Plain.[92] This term could refer to dynasties of both Han and non-Han ethnic origins.[92]
"Unified dynasties" (大一統王朝; dàyītǒng wángcháo) refer to dynasties of China, regardless of their ethnic origin, that achieved the unification of China proper. "China proper" is a region generally regarded as the traditional heartland of the Han people, and is not equivalent to the term "China". Imperial dynasties that had attained the unification of China proper may be known as the "Chinese Empire" or the "Empire of China" (中華帝國; Zhōnghuá Dìguó).[93][94][h]
The concept of "great unity" or "grand unification" (大一統; dàyītǒng) was first mentioned in the Gongyang Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals that was supposedly authored by the Qi scholar Gongyang Gao.[95][96][97] Other prominent figures like Confucius and Mencius also elaborated on this concept in their respective works.[98][99]
Historians typically consider the following dynasties to have unified China proper: the Qin dynasty, the Western Han, the Xin dynasty, the Eastern Han, the Western Jin, the Sui dynasty, the Tang dynasty, the Wu Zhou, the Northern Song, the Yuan dynasty, the Ming dynasty, and the Qing dynasty.[100][101] The status of the Northern Song as a unified dynasty is disputed among historians as the Sixteen Prefectures of Yan and Yun were partially administered by the contemporaneous Liao dynasty while the Western Xia exercised partial control over Hetao; the Northern Song, in this sense, did not truly achieve the unification of China proper.[100][102]
According to the historian and sinologist Karl August Wittfogel, dynasties of China founded by non-Han peoples that ruled parts or all of China proper could be classified into two types, depending on the means by which the ruling ethnic groups had entered China proper.[103]
"Infiltration dynasties" or "dynasties of infiltration" (滲透王朝; shèntòu wángcháo) refer to Chinese dynasties founded by non-Han ethnicities that tended towards accepting Han culture and assimilating into the Han-dominant society.[103] For instance, the Han-Zhao and the Northern Wei, established by the Xiongnu and Xianbei ethnicities respectively, are considered infiltration dynasties of China.[103]
"Conquest dynasties" or "dynasties of conquest" (征服王朝; zhēngfú wángcháo) refer to dynasties of China established by non-Han peoples that tended towards resisting Han culture and preserving the identities of the ruling ethnicities.[103][104] For example, the Liao dynasty and the Yuan dynasty, ruled by the Khitan and Mongol peoples respectively, are considered conquest dynasties of China.[103]
These terms remain sources of controversy among scholars who believe that Chinese history should be analyzed and understood from a multiethnic and multicultural perspective.[105]
It was customary for Chinese monarchs to adopt an official name for the realm, known as the guóhào (國號; "name of the state"), upon the establishment of a dynasty.[106][107] During the rule of a dynasty, its guóhào functioned as the formal name of the state, both internally and for diplomatic purposes.
The formal name of Chinese dynasties was usually derived from one of the following sources:
There were instances whereby the official name was changed during the reign of a dynasty. For example, the dynasty known retroactively as Southern Han initially used the name "Yue", only to be renamed to "Han" subsequently.[114]
The official title of several dynasties bore the character "dà" (大; "great"). In Yongzhuang Xiaopin by the Ming historian Zhu Guozhen, it was claimed that the first dynasty to do so was the Yuan dynasty.[115][116] However, several sources like the History of Liao and the History of Jin compiled by the Yuan historian Toqto'a revealed that the official dynastic name of some earlier dynasties such as the Liao and the Jin also contained the character "dà".[117][118] It was also common for officials, subjects, or tributary states of a particular dynasty to include the term "dà" (or an equivalent term in other languages) when referring to this dynasty as a form of respect, even if the official dynastic name did not include it.[116] For instance, The Chronicles of Japan referred to the Tang dynasty as "Dai Tō" (大唐; "Great Tang") despite its dynastic name being simply "Tang".
While all dynasties of China sought to associate their respective realm with Zhōngguó (中國; "Central State"; usually translated as "Middle Kingdom" or "China" in English texts) and various other names of China, none of these regimes officially used such names as their dynastic title.[119][120] Although the Qing dynasty explicitly identified their state with and employed "Zhōngguó"—and its Manchu equivalent "Dulimbai Gurun" (ᡩᡠᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳ
ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ)—in official capacity in numerous international treaties beginning with the Treaty of Nerchinsk dated AD 1689, its dynastic name had remained the "Great Qing".[121][122] "Zhōngguó", which has become nearly synonymous with "China" in modern times, is a concept with geographical, political, and cultural connotations.[123]
The adoption of guóhào, as well as the importance assigned to it, had promulgated within the Sinosphere. Notably, rulers of Vietnam and Korea also declared guóhào for their respective realm.
In Chinese historiography, historians generally do not refer to dynasties directly by their official name. Instead, historiographical names, which were most commonly derived from their official name, are used. For instance, the Sui dynasty is known as such because its formal name was "Sui". Likewise, the Jin dynasty was officially the "Great Jin".
When more than one dynasty shared the same Chinese character(s) as their formal name, as was common in Chinese history, prefixes are retroactively applied to dynastic names by historians in order to distinguish between these similarly-named regimes.[8][41][124] Frequently used prefixes include:
A dynasty could be referred to by more than one retroactive name in Chinese historiography, albeit some are more widely used than others. For instance, the Western Han is also known as the "Former Han", and the Yang Wu is also called the "Southern Wu".[132][133]
Scholars usually make a historiographical distinction for dynasties whose rule were interrupted. For example, the Song dynasty is divided into the Northern Song and the Southern Song, with the Jingkang Incident as the dividing line; the original "Song" founded by the Emperor Taizu of Song was therefore differentiated from the "Song" restored under the Emperor Gaozong of Song.[134] In such cases, the regime had collapsed, only to be re-established; a nomenclatural distinction between the original regime and the new regime is thus necessary for historiographical purpose. Major exceptions to this historiographical practice include the Western Qin, the Southern Liang, and the Tang dynasty; the first two were interrupted by the Later Qin, while the continuity of the latter was broken by the Wu Zhou.[135][136][137]
In Chinese sources, the term "dynasty" (朝; cháo) is usually omitted when referencing dynasties that have prefixes in their historiographical names. Such a practice is sometimes adopted in English usage, even though the inclusion of the word "dynasty" is also widely seen in English scholarly writings. For example, the Northern Zhou is also sometimes referred to as the "Northern Zhou dynasty".[138]
Often, scholars would refer to a specific Chinese dynasty by attaching the word "China" after the dynastic name. For instance, "Tang China" refers to the Chinese state under the rule of the Tang dynasty and the corresponding historical era.[139]
While the earliest orthodox Chinese dynasties were established along the Yellow River and the Yangtze in China proper, numerous Chinese dynasties later expanded beyond the region to encompass other territorial domains.[140][141][142][143][144][145][146][147][148][149][150][151][152]
At various points in time, Chinese dynasties exercised control over China proper (including Hainan, Macau, and Hong Kong),[140][141][142] part of Taiwan,[143] Manchuria (both Inner Manchuria and Outer Manchuria),[144][145] Sakhalin,[146][147] Mongolia (both Inner Mongolia and Outer Mongolia),[145][148] Vietnam,[149][153] Tibet,[144][145] Xinjiang,[150] as well as parts of Central Asia,[145][146] the Korean Peninsula,[151] Afghanistan,[152][154] and Siberia.[145]
Territorially, the largest orthodox Chinese dynasty was either the Yuan dynasty or the Qing dynasty, depending on the historical source.[12][13][14][15][16][c] This discrepancy can be mainly attributed to the ambiguous northern border of the Yuan realm: whereas some sources describe the Yuan border as located to the immediate north of the northern shore of Lake Baikal, others posit that the Yuan dynasty reached as far north as the Arctic coast, with its western boundary with the Golden Horde in Siberia delimited by the Ob and the Irtysh.[155][156][157] In contrast, the borders of the Qing dynasty were demarcated and reinforced through a series of international treaties, and thus were more well-defined.
Apart from exerting direct control over the Chinese realm, various dynasties of China also maintained hegemony over other states and tribes through the Chinese tributary system.[158] The Chinese tributary system first emerged during the Western Han and lasted until the 19th century AD when the Sinocentric order broke down.[159][160]
The modern territorial claims of both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China are inherited from the lands once held by the Qing dynasty at the time of its collapse.[16][161][162][163][164]
This list includes only the major dynasties of China that are typically found in simplified forms of Chinese historical timelines. This list is neither comprehensive nor representative of Chinese history as a whole.
Dynasty | Ruling house | Period of rule | Rulers | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Name[k] (English[l] / Chinese[m] / Hanyu Pinyin / Wade–Giles / Bopomofo) |
Surname (English[l] / Chinese[m]) |
Ethnicity[n] | Status[o] | Year | Term | Founder[p] | Last monarch | List / Family tree | |
Semi-legendary | |||||||||
Xia dynasty 夏朝 Xià Cháo Hsia4 Ch῾ao2 ㄒㄧㄚˋ ㄔㄠˊ |
Si[q][r][s] 姒 |
Huaxia[r][s] | Royal | 2070–1600 BC[171][t][u] | 470 years[u] | Yu of Xia | Jie of Xia | (list) (tree) | |
Ancient China | |||||||||
Shang dynasty 商朝 Shāng Cháo Shang1 Ch῾ao2 ㄕㄤ ㄔㄠˊ |
Zi 子 |
Huaxia | Royal | 1600–1046 BC[174][t][v] | 554 years[v] | Tang of Shang | Zhou of Shang | (list) (tree) | |
Western Zhou[w] 西周 Xī Zhōu Hsi1 Chou1 ㄒㄧ ㄓㄡ |
Ji 姬 |
Huaxia | Royal | 1046–771 BC[176][t][x] | 275 years[x] | Wu of Zhou | You of Zhou | (list) (tree) | |
Eastern Zhou[w] 東周 Dōng Zhōu Tung1 Chou1 ㄉㄨㄥ ㄓㄡ |
Ji 姬 |
Huaxia | Royal | 770–256 BC[176] | 514 years | Ping of Zhou | Nan of Zhou | (list) (tree) | |
Early Imperial China[y] | |||||||||
Qin dynasty 秦朝 Qín Cháo Ch῾in2 Ch῾ao2 ㄑㄧㄣˊ ㄔㄠˊ |
Ying[z] 嬴 |
Huaxia | Imperial (221–207 BC) Royal (207 BC) |
221–207 BC[178] | 14 years | Qin Shi Huang | Ying Ziying | (list) (tree) | |
Western Han[aa] 西漢 Xī Hàn Hsi1 Han4 ㄒㄧ ㄏㄢˋ |
Liu 劉 |
Han | Imperial | 202 BC–AD 9[179][ab] | 211 years[ab] | Gao of Han | Liu Ying[ac] | (list) (tree) | |
Xin dynasty 新朝 Xīn Cháo Hsin1 Ch῾ao2 ㄒㄧㄣ ㄔㄠˊ |
Wang 王 |
Han | Imperial | AD 9–23[182] | 14 years | Wang Mang | (list) (tree) | ||
Eastern Han[aa] 東漢 Dōng Hàn Tung1 Han4 ㄉㄨㄥ ㄏㄢˋ |
Liu 劉 |
Han | Imperial | AD 25–220[183] | 195 years | Guangwu of Han | Xian of Han | (list) (tree) | |
Three Kingdoms 三國 Sān Guó San1 Kuo2 ㄙㄢ ㄍㄨㄛˊ |
AD 220–280[184] | 60 years | (list) (tree) | ||||||
Cao Wei 曹魏 Cáo Wèi Ts῾ao2 Wei4 ㄘㄠˊ ㄨㄟˋ |
Cao 曹 |
Han | Imperial | AD 220–266[185] | 46 years | Wen of Cao Wei | Yuan of Cao Wei | (list) (tree) | |
Shu Han 蜀漢 Shǔ Hàn Shu3 Han4 ㄕㄨˇ ㄏㄢˋ |
Liu 劉 |
Han | Imperial | AD 221–263[186] | 42 years | Zhaolie of Shu Han | Huai of Shu Han | (list) (tree) | |
Eastern Wu 東吳 Dōng Wú Tung1 Wu2 ㄉㄨㄥ ㄨˊ |
Sun 孫 |
Han | Royal (AD 222–229) Imperial (AD 229–280) |
AD 222–280[187] | 58 years | Da of Eastern Wu | Sun Hao | (list) (tree) | |
Western Jin[ad][ae] 西晉 Xī Jìn Hsi1 Chin4 ㄒㄧ ㄐㄧㄣˋ |
Sima 司馬 |
Han | Imperial | AD 266–316[188] | 50 years | Wu of Jin | Min of Jin | (list) (tree) | |
Eastern Jin[ad][ae] 東晉 Dōng Jìn Tung1 Chin4 ㄉㄨㄥ ㄐㄧㄣˋ |
Sima 司馬 |
Han | Imperial | AD 317–420[189] | 103 years | Yuan of Jin | Gong of Jin | (list) (tree) | |
Sixteen Kingdoms[af] 十六國 Shíliù Guó Shih2-liu4 Kuo2 ㄕˊ ㄌㄧㄡˋ ㄍㄨㄛˊ |
AD 304–439[191] | 135 years | (list) (tree) | ||||||
Han-Zhao 漢趙 Hàn Zhào Han4 Chao4 ㄏㄢˋ ㄓㄠˋ |
Liu[ag][ah] 劉 |
Xiongnu | Royal (AD 304–308) Imperial (AD 308–329) |
AD 304–329[195] | 25 years | Guangwen of Han-Zhao | Liu Yao | (list) (tree) | |
Cheng-Han 成漢 Chéng Hàn Ch῾eng2 Han4 ㄔㄥˊ ㄏㄢˋ |
Li 李 |
Di | Princely (AD 304–306) Imperial (AD 306–347) |
AD 304–347[196][ai] | 43 years[ai] | Wu of Cheng-Han[ai] | Li Shi | (list) (tree) | |
Later Zhao 後趙 Hòu Zhào Hou4 Chao4 ㄏㄡˋ ㄓㄠˋ |
Shi 石 |
Jie | Royal (AD 319–330) Imperial (AD 330–351) Princely (AD 351) |
AD 319–351[198] | 32 years | Ming of Later Zhao | Shi Zhi | (list) (tree) | |
Former Liang 前涼 Qián Liáng Ch῾ien2 Liang2 ㄑㄧㄢˊ ㄌㄧㄤˊ |
Zhang 張 |
Han | Princely (AD 320–354, AD 355–363) Imperial (AD 354–355) Ducal (AD 363–376) |
AD 320–376[199] | 56 years | Cheng of Former Liang | Dao of Former Liang | (list) (tree) | |
Former Yan 前燕 Qián Yān Ch῾ien2 Yen1 ㄑㄧㄢˊ ㄧㄢ |
Murong 慕容 |
Xianbei | Princely (AD 337–353) Imperial (AD 353–370) |
AD 337–370[200] | 33 years | Wenming of Former Yan | You of Former Yan | (list) (tree) | |
Former Qin 前秦 Qián Qín Ch῾ien2 Ch῾in2 ㄑㄧㄢˊ ㄑㄧㄣˊ |
Fu[aj] 苻 |
Di | Imperial | AD 351–394[200][ak] | 43 years[ak] | Jingming of Former Qin[ak] | Fu Chong | (list) (tree) | |
Later Yan 後燕 Hòu Yān Hou4 Yen1 ㄏㄡˋ ㄧㄢ |
Murong[al][am] 慕容 |
Xianbei[am] | Princely (AD 384–386) Imperial (AD 386–409) |
AD 384–409[205][an] | 25 years[an] | Chengwu of Later Yan | Zhaowen of Later Yan Huiyi of Yan[ao] |
(list) (tree) | |
Later Qin 後秦 Hòu Qín Hou4 Ch῾in2 ㄏㄡˋ ㄑㄧㄣˊ |
Yao 姚 |
Qiang | Royal (AD 384–386) Imperial (AD 386–417) |
AD 384–417[206] | 33 years | Wuzhao of Later Qin | Yao Hong | (list) (tree) | |
Western Qin 西秦 Xī Qín Hsi1 Ch῾in2 ㄒㄧ ㄑㄧㄣˊ |
Qifu 乞伏 |
Xianbei | Princely | AD 385–400, AD 409–431[207] | 37 years[ap] | Xuanlie of Western Qin | Qifu Mumo | (list) (tree) | |
Later Liang[aq] 後涼 Hòu Liáng Hou4 Liang2 ㄏㄡˋ ㄌㄧㄤˊ |
Lü 呂 |
Di | Ducal (AD 386–389) Princely (AD 389–396) Imperial (AD 396–403) |
AD 386–403[208] | 17 years | Yiwu of Later Liang | Lü Long | (list) (tree) | |
Southern Liang 南涼 Nán Liáng Nan2 Liang2 ㄋㄢˊ ㄌㄧㄤˊ |
Tufa[ar] 禿髮 |
Xianbei | Princely | AD 397–404, AD 408–414[209] | 13 years[as] | Wu of Southern Liang | Jing of Southern Liang | (list) (tree) | |
Northern Liang 北涼 Běi Liáng Pei3 Liang2 ㄅㄟˇ ㄌㄧㄤˊ |
Juqu[at] 沮渠 |
Lushuihu[at] | Ducal (AD 397–399, AD 401–412) Princely (AD 399–401, AD 412–439) |
AD 397–439[211] | 42 years | Duan Ye | Ai of Northern Liang | (list) (tree) | |
Southern Yan 南燕 Nán Yān Nan2 Yen1 ㄋㄢˊ ㄧㄢ |
Murong 慕容 |
Xianbei | Princely (AD 398–400) Imperial (AD 400–410) |
AD 398–410[212] | 12 years | Xianwu of Southern Yan | Murong Chao | (list) (tree) | |
Western Liang 西涼 Xī Liáng Hsi1 Liang2 ㄒㄧ ㄌㄧㄤˊ |
Li 李 |
Han | Ducal | AD 400–421[213] | 21 years | Wuzhao of Western Liang | Li Xun | (list) (tree) | |
Hu Xia 胡夏 Hú Xià Hu2 Hsia4 ㄏㄨˊ ㄒㄧㄚˋ |
Helian[au] 赫連 |
Xiongnu | Imperial | AD 407–431[216] | 24 years | Wulie of Hu Xia | Helian Ding | (list) (tree) | |
Northern Yan 北燕 Běi Yān Pei3 Yen1 ㄅㄟˇ ㄧㄢ |
Feng[av] 馮 |
Han[av] | Imperial | AD 407–436[217][aw] | 29 years[aw] | Huiyi of Yan[ao] Wencheng of Northern Yan |
Zhaocheng of Northern Yan | (list) (tree) | |
Northern dynasties 北朝 Běi Cháo Pei3 Ch῾ao2 ㄅㄟˇ ㄔㄠˊ |
AD 386–581[218] | 195 years | (list) (tree) | ||||||
Northern Wei 北魏 Běi Wèi Pei3 Wei4 ㄅㄟˇ ㄨㄟˋ |
Tuoba[ax] 拓跋 |
Xianbei | Princely (AD 386–399) Imperial (AD 399–535) |
AD 386–535[220] | 149 years | Daowu of Northern Wei | Xiaowu of Northern Wei | (list) (tree) | |
Eastern Wei 東魏 Dōng Wèi Tung1 Wei4 ㄉㄨㄥ ㄨㄟˋ |
Yuan[ay] 元 |
Xianbei | Imperial | AD 534–550[221] | 16 years | Xiaojing of Eastern Wei | (list) (tree) | ||
Western Wei 西魏 Xī Wèi Hsi1 Wei4 ㄒㄧ ㄨㄟˋ |
Yuan[az] 元 |
Xianbei | Imperial | AD 535–557[221] | 22 years | Wen of Western Wei | Gong of Western Wei | (list) (tree) | |
Northern Qi 北齊 Běi Qí Pei3 Ch῾i2 ㄅㄟˇ ㄑㄧˊ |
Gao 高 |
Han | Imperial | AD 550–577[221] | 27 years | Wenxuan of Northern Qi | Gao Heng | (list) (tree) | |
Northern Zhou 北周 Běi Zhōu Pei3 Chou1 ㄅㄟˇ ㄓㄡ |
Yuwen 宇文 |
Xianbei | Imperial | AD 557–581[221] | 24 years | Xiaomin of Northern Zhou | Jing of Northern Zhou | (list) (tree) | |
Southern dynasties 南朝 Nán Cháo Nan2 Ch῾ao2 ㄋㄢˊ ㄔㄠˊ |
AD 420–589[223] | 169 years | (list) (tree) | ||||||
Liu Song 劉宋 Liú Sòng Liu2 Sung4 ㄌㄧㄡˊ ㄙㄨㄥˋ |
Liu 劉 |
Han | Imperial | AD 420–479[224] | 59 years | Wu of Liu Song | Shun of Liu Song | (list) (tree) | |
Southern Qi 南齊 Nán Qí Nan2 Ch῾i2 ㄋㄢˊ ㄑㄧˊ |
Xiao 蕭 |
Han | Imperial | AD 479–502[225] | 23 years | Gao of Southern Qi | He of Southern Qi | (list) (tree) | |
Liang dynasty 梁朝 Liáng Cháo Liang2 Ch῾ao2 ㄌㄧㄤˊ ㄔㄠˊ |
Xiao 蕭 |
Han | Imperial | AD 502–557[226] | 55 years | Wu of Liang | Jing of Liang | (list) (tree) | |
Chen dynasty 陳朝 Chén Cháo Ch῾en2 Ch῾ao2 ㄔㄣˊ ㄔㄠˊ |
Chen 陳 |
Han | Imperial | AD 557–589[227] | 32 years | Wu of Chen | Chen Shubao | (list) (tree) | |
Middle Imperial China[y] | |||||||||
Sui dynasty 隋朝 Suí Cháo Sui2 Ch῾ao2 ㄙㄨㄟˊ ㄔㄠˊ |
Yang[ba] 楊 |
Han | Imperial | AD 581–619[229] | 38 years | Wen of Sui | Gong of Sui | (list) (tree) | |
Tang dynasty 唐朝 Táng Cháo T῾ang2 Ch῾ao2 ㄊㄤˊ ㄔㄠˊ |
Li[bb] 李 |
Han | Imperial | AD 618–690, AD 705–907[231] | 274 years[bc] | Gaozu of Tang | Ai of Tang | (list) (tree) | |
Wu Zhou 武周 Wǔ Zhōu Wu3 Chou1 ㄨˇ ㄓㄡ |
Wu 武 |
Han | Imperial | AD 690–705[232] | 15 years | Shengshen of Wu Zhou | (list) (tree) | ||
Five Dynasties 五代 Wǔ Dài Wu3 Tai4 ㄨˇ ㄉㄞˋ |
AD 907–960[233] | 53 years | (list) (tree) | ||||||
Later Liang[aq] 後梁 Hòu Liáng Hou4 Liang2 ㄏㄡˋ ㄌㄧㄤˊ |
Zhu 朱 |
Han | Imperial | AD 907–923[234] | 16 years | Taizu of Later Liang | Zhu Youzhen | (list) (tree) | |
Later Tang 後唐 Hòu Táng Hou4 T῾ang2 ㄏㄡˋ ㄊㄤˊ |
Li[bd][be][bf] 李 |
Shatuo[bf] | Imperial | AD 923–937[238] | 14 years | Zhuangzong of Later Tang | Li Congke | (list) (tree) | |
Later Jin[bg] 後晉 Hòu Jìn Hou4 Chin4 ㄏㄡˋ ㄐㄧㄣˋ |
Shi 石 |
Shatuo | Imperial | AD 936–947[239] | 11 years | Gaozu of Later Jin | Chu of Later Jin | (list) (tree) | |
Later Han 後漢 Hòu Hàn Hou4 Han4 ㄏㄡˋ ㄏㄢˋ |
Liu 劉 |
Shatuo | Imperial | AD 947–951[239] | 4 years | Gaozu of Later Han | Yin of Later Han | (list) (tree) | |
Later Zhou 後周 Hòu Zhōu Hou4 Chou1 ㄏㄡˋ ㄓㄡ |
Guo[bh] 郭 |
Han | Imperial | AD 951–960[239] | 9 years | Taizu of Later Zhou | Gong of Later Zhou | (list) (tree) | |
Ten Kingdoms 十國 Shí Guó Shih2 Kuo2 ㄕˊ ㄍㄨㄛˊ |
AD 907–979[241] | 72 years | (list) (tree) | ||||||
Former Shu 前蜀 Qián Shǔ Ch῾ien2 Shu3 ㄑㄧㄢˊ ㄕㄨˇ |
Wang 王 |
Han | Imperial | AD 907–925[242] | 18 years | Gaozu of Former Shu | Wang Yan | (list) (tree) | |
Yang Wu 楊吳 Yáng Wú Yang2 Wu2 ㄧㄤˊ ㄨˊ |
Yang 楊 |
Han | Princely (AD 907–919) Royal (AD 919–927) Imperial (AD 927–937) |
AD 907–937[243][bi] | 30 years[bi] | Liezu of Yang Wu[bi] | Rui of Yang Wu | (list) (tree) | |
Ma Chu 馬楚 Mǎ Chǔ Ma3 Ch῾u3 ㄇㄚˇ ㄔㄨˇ |
Ma 馬 |
Han | Royal (AD 907–930) Princely (AD 930–951) |
AD 907–951[245] | 44 years | Wumu of Ma Chu | Ma Xichong | (list) (tree) | |
Wuyue 吳越 Wúyuè Wu2-yüeh4 ㄨˊ ㄩㄝˋ |
Qian 錢 |
Han | Royal (AD 907–932, AD 937–978) Princely (AD 934–937) |
AD 907–978[245] | 71 years | Taizu of Wuyue | Zhongyi of Qin | (list) (tree) | |
Min 閩 Mǐn Min3 ㄇㄧㄣˇ |
Wang[bj] 王 |
Han | Princely (AD 909–933, AD 944–945) Imperial (AD 933–944, AD 945) |
AD 909–945[245] | 36 years | Taizu of Min | Tiande | (list) (tree) | |
Southern Han 南漢 Nán Hàn Nan2 Han4 ㄋㄢˊ ㄏㄢˋ |
Liu 劉 |
Han | Imperial | AD 917–971[245] | 54 years | Gaozu of Southern Han | Liu Chang | (list) (tree) | |
Jingnan 荊南 Jīngnán Ching1-nan2 ㄐㄧㄥ ㄋㄢˊ |
Gao[bk] 高 |
Han | Princely | AD 924–963[245] | 39 years | Wuxin of Chu | Gao Jichong | (list) (tree) | |
Later Shu 後蜀 Hòu Shǔ Hou4 Shu3 ㄏㄡˋ ㄕㄨˇ |
Meng 孟 |
Han | Imperial | AD 934–965[245] | 31 years | Gaozu of Later Shu | Gongxiao of Chu | (list) (tree) | |
Southern Tang 南唐 Nán Táng Nan2 T῾ang2 ㄋㄢˊ ㄊㄤˊ |
Li[bl] 李 |
Han | Imperial (AD 937–958) Royal (AD 958–976) |
AD 937–976[249] | 37 years | Liezu of Southern Tang | Li Yu | (list) (tree) | |
Northern Han 北漢 Běi Hàn Pei3 Han4 ㄅㄟˇ ㄏㄢˋ |
Liu[bm][bn] 劉 |
Shatuo[bm][bn] | Imperial | AD 951–979[252] | 28 years | Shizu of Northern Han | Yingwu of Northern Han | (list) (tree) | |
Liao dynasty 遼朝 Liáo Cháo Liao2 Ch῾ao2 ㄌㄧㄠˊ ㄔㄠˊ |
Yelü 耶律 (𘬜𘭪𘲚𘱪) |
Khitan | Imperial | AD 916–1125[253][bo] | 209 years[bo] | Taizu of Liao | Tianzuo of Liao | (list) (tree) | |
Western Liao 西遼 Xī Liáo Hsi1 Liao2 ㄒㄧ ㄌㄧㄠˊ |
Yelü[bp] 耶律 (𘬜𘭪𘲚𘱪) |
Khitan[bp] | Royal (AD 1124–1132) Imperial (AD 1132–1218) |
AD 1124–1218[257][bq] | 94 years[bq] | Dezong of Western Liao | Kuchlug | (list) (tree) | |
Northern Song[br] 北宋 Běi Sòng Pei3 Sung4 ㄅㄟˇ ㄙㄨㄥˋ |
Zhao 趙 |
Han | Imperial | AD 960–1127[259] | 167 years | Taizu of Song | Qinzong of Song | (list) (tree) | |
Southern Song[br] 南宋 Nán Sòng Nan2 Sung4 ㄋㄢˊ ㄙㄨㄥˋ |
Zhao 趙 |
Han | Imperial | AD 1127–1279[260] | 152 years | Gaozong of Song | Zhao Bing | (list) (tree) | |
Western Xia 西夏 Xī Xià Hsi1 Hsia4 ㄒㄧ ㄒㄧㄚˋ |
Weiming[bs] 嵬名 𗼨𗆟 |
Tangut | Imperial | AD 1038–1227[262] | 189 years | Jingzong of Western Xia | Li Xian | (list) (tree) | |
Jin dynasty[ae] 金朝 Jīn Cháo Chin1 Ch῾ao2 ㄐㄧㄣ ㄔㄠˊ |
Wanyan 完顏 |
Jurchen | Imperial | AD 1115–1234[263] | 119 years | Taizu of Jin | Wanyan Chenglin | (list) (tree) | |
Late Imperial China[y] | |||||||||
Yuan dynasty 元朝 Yuán Cháo Yüan2 Ch῾ao2 ㄩㄢˊ ㄔㄠˊ |
Borjigin[bt] 孛兒只斤 ᠪᠣᠷᠵᠢᠭᠢᠨ |
Mongol | Imperial | AD 1271–1368[264][bu] | 97 years[bu] | Shizu of Yuan | Huizong of Yuan | (list) (tree) | |
Northern Yuan 北元 Běi Yuán Pei3 Yüan2 ㄅㄟˇ ㄩㄢˊ |
Borjigin[bv][bw] 孛兒只斤 ᠪᠣᠷᠵᠢᠭᠢᠨ |
Mongol[bw] | Imperial | AD 1368–1635[268][bx] | 267 years[bx] | Huizong of Yuan | Borjigin Erke Khongghor[bx] | (list) (tree) | |
Ming dynasty 明朝 Míng Cháo Ming2 Ch῾ao2 ㄇㄧㄥˊ ㄔㄠˊ |
Zhu 朱 |
Han | Imperial | AD 1368–1644[272] | 276 years | Hongwu | Chongzhen | (list) (tree) | |
Southern Ming 南明 Nán Míng Nan2 Ming2 ㄋㄢˊ ㄇㄧㄥˊ |
Zhu 朱 |
Han | Imperial | AD 1644–1662[273][by] | 18 years[by] | Hongguang | Yongli[by] | (list) (tree) | |
Later Jin[bg] 後金 Hòu Jīn Hou4 Chin1 ㄏㄡˋ ㄐㄧㄣ |
Aisin Gioro 愛新覺羅 ᠠᡳᠰᡳᠨ ᡤᡳᠣᡵᠣ |
Jurchen[bz] | Royal | AD 1616–1636[277] | 20 years | Tianming | Taizong of Qing | (list) (tree) | |
Qing dynasty 清朝 Qīng Cháo Ch῾ing1 Ch῾ao2 ㄑㄧㄥ ㄔㄠˊ |
Aisin Gioro 愛新覺羅 ᠠᡳᠰᡳᠨ ᡤᡳᠣᡵᠣ |
Manchu | Imperial | AD 1636–1912[278][ca][cb] | 276 years | Taizong of Qing | Xuantong | (list) (tree) |
Dynasties that belonged to the following categories are excluded from this list:
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