Deafness in France

Deafness in France concerns the experiences, education, and community of deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) people in France. The history of DHH people in France is longstanding. As of 2014, there were about 10 million people with hearing impairments in France (16.1% of the population). Of these, approximately 360,000 (0.6% of the population) had "very serious or total" functional limitations, meaning they were unable to hear a conversation with multiple speakers and identified as deaf or hard of hearing.^[1]

French Sign Language (LSF) is the primary signed language used in France, although American Sign Language (ASL) is also studied and used. French Cued Speech, which combines spoken French with visual cues, is also employed.^[2]

Culture

Some deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) individuals in France take steps in early and mid-life to integrate into hearing society. One common approach is the use of cochlear implants, devices affixed to ear structures that transmit sounds to the auditory nerve, allowing certain disruptions in the hearing process to be bypassed.^[3] Many children in France are screened for deafness within the first week after birth. When deafness is detected, doctors often recommend cochlear implantation at an early stage. This practice is considered controversial, as some parents believe that such interventions occur too soon. While France is recognised for early identification of DHH children, critics argue that cochlear implantation may be undertaken prematurely, potentially distancing children from DHH culture and communities.^[4]

Speech therapy is also common in France. In this approach, DHH individuals are trained to speak in order to facilitate communication in predominantly non-signing environments.^[4] While this method is seen by some as supportive of integration, others criticise it as contributing to a sense of alienation from DHH culture.^{[clarification needed]}

To counteract potential exclusion, DHH communities and organisations have developed across France. Informal groups provide social spaces where cochlear implants and speech therapy are not central to participation.^[4] Formal associations also exist to represent DHH interests and celebrate DHH culture. Examples include performances and classes at the IVT theatre, political advocacy by the FNSF, and the biennial Festival Clin d'Oeil, which showcases arts, film, and cultural events conducted entirely in sign language.^[5] These communities and structures foster cultural expression and offer alternatives to practices emphasising assimilation into hearing society.

Education

Since 1989, French law has standardised^{[clarification needed]} the teaching of a second language during primary school. However, unlike in some other countries, DHH students in France are not permitted to use a sign language as their primary or secondary language of instruction.^{[clarification needed]}

A 2005 law, intended as an equal rights measure, integrated DHH students into mainstream schools but also reduced some of the specialised support that had previously been available. As a result, many DHH students attend schools where staff are neither specifically trained nor adequately funded to meet their needs, which has contributed to lower academic performance among this group.

Approximately 99.6% of DHH students in France study English as their first foreign language. The majority of those who take a second foreign language select French Sign Language (LSF), which is often the earliest point at which they can study their native language in school. This requirement means that many DHH students are obliged to study two foreign languages before being able to take LSF. Some withdraw from their second language studies to focus on mastering French, a strategy popularised by a 2003 study by Ivani Fuselier‐Souza. Some schools also use French cued speech, or "signed French," which combines spoken French with LSF, in mixed classes of hearing and DHH students, though its use is limited due to a lack of training and funding.^[2]

Specialised schools for DHH students exist in France, but access is not universal. As a result, many DHH children progress through the education system without sufficient linguistic support. A 2020 study on spelling errors among DHH French students found that although the number of errors did not differ substantially from those of hearing students, the errors were often more severe and reflected fundamental misunderstandings of the language, making them significantly harder to interpret.^[6]

History

In 1755, French priest Abbé Charles-Michel de l'Épée opened a school for the deaf with his own funding. This institution contributed to the development of French Sign Language (LSF), which is generally considered the first fully developed sign language directly traceable to a modern system.^[7]

Around this period, as sign language became more widely used, the role of caregivers of DHH individuals shifted from being primarily educational to increasingly medical. The introduction of new methods of communication enabled faster and more accurate diagnoses of various diseases and injuries.^[8] Today, DHH individuals receive care from both medical professionals and educators, though disparities remain. For example, studies have shown that serious illnesses such as cancer are often diagnosed at a later stage in DHH patients compared with the general population.^[9]

World War II

During World War II, deaf people in France, as elsewhere in Nazi-occupied Europe, faced persecution. Many were killed as part of Nazi population policies, though precise figures for France are unavailable.^[10]

Within France, deaf individuals sought to contribute to the war effort by working in factories, but many were unlawfully refused employment. In response, letters were published in newspapers such as the Gazette,^[which?] leading to policies prohibiting discrimination against deaf workers. However, these policies primarily applied to deaf men, reflecting broader restrictions on women in the workforce.^[10]

In 1942, Prime Minister Pierre Laval negotiated with Germany a programme of prisoner-for-worker exchanges. For every three French workers sent to Germany, one prisoner of war would be released. Many of those sent were deaf, and a significant number became prisoners of war themselves, particularly those unable to quickly learn spoken German.^[10]

The visibility of DHH individuals in wartime France also influenced cultural life. More deaf characters began to appear in French media, contributing to a flourishing of deaf arts and reinforcing movements for recognition and individuality.^[10]

Organizations

FNSF

The Fédération Nationale des Sourds de France (FNSF; Fédération Nationale des Sourds de France, "National Federation of the Deaf in France") is a federation that brings together 89 different organisations addressing a wide range of issues in which the perspectives of the DHH community are often underrepresented. The federation advocates for the rights and visibility of DHH individuals in France and participates in certain legal and policy processes.

The FNSF engages with the Ministries of National Education and Social Affairs, the National Consultative Committee for People with Disabilities, the High Authority of Health, the National Institute of Prevention for Education and Health, the National Monuments Center, and the Superior Audiovisual Council, among others. The federation identifies its core values as culture, unity, participation, self-representation, consistency, heritage, and solidarity, which guide its activities and educational initiatives. It organises camps across Europe to promote learning of French Sign Language (LSF) among underprivileged DHH children.^[11] The federation is a member of the European Union of the Deaf and the World Federation of the Deaf.

IVT

The International Visual Theatre (IVT) has been based in Paris since 1981. Directed by Emmanuelle Laborit and Jennifer Lesage-David, it functions as both a theatre and a community centre for the DHH community. The theatre hosts performances, educational programmes, and cultural activities where LSF is the primary language of communication. Each year, it stages dozens of shows and offers classes attended by hundreds of participants. Courses cover language, culture, and the arts, both in-person and online, with the aim of contributing broadly to the education and cultural development of DHH people in France.^[12]

DEAFI

Founded in 2009, DEAFI is a French communication company that provides services to support the deaf community, particularly in the area of accessible communication. It is known for its use of webcams and video-relay services to facilitate remote communication in LSF. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the company expanded its services to address increased demand for online communication. DEAFI also assists clients in accessing specialised education and employment opportunities, with the broader goal of promoting long-term independence.^[13]