Corruption in El Salvador

Corruption in El Salvador is a problem at all levels of government, however, according to a poll conducted by the Cid-Gallup in February 2023, only 4 percent of Salvadorans believed corruption as the most pressing issue facing the country.^[1]

Government corruption

Presidential corruption

On 6 September 2014, former President Francisco Flores Pérez (1999–2004) was arrested on corruption charges for allegedly misappropriating US$15 million during his presidency.^[2] In December 2015, he was charged with embezzlement and illicit enrichment and was ordered to stand trial, but he died in January 2016 before his trial started.^[3] In 2021, he was named in the Pandora Papers as having used companies in Panama and the British Virgin Islands to hide funds.^[4]

On 10 February 2016, former President Mauricio Funes (2009–2014) was ordered by the Supreme Court to stand trial for alleged illegal enrichment after he was unable to verify the source of US$700,000 in his personal bank accounts.^[5] He was found guilty of illegal enrichment on 28 November 2017 and was ordered to pay US$420,000.^[6] Overall, Funes has been accused of embezzling US$351 million during his presidency.^[7] On 23 February 2023, a judge ordered Funes to stand trial for allegedly laundering US$8.4 million through a Guatemalan company.^[8] Funes remains in exile in Nicaragua after he was granted asylum in September 2016.^[9]

In October 2016, Former President Antonio Saca (2004–2009) was arrested on corruption charges. On 12 September 2018, he was sentenced to ten years imprisonment after he pled guilty to embezzling and laundering US$300 million of public funds during his presidency. He was ordered to pay US$260 million.^[10] On 19 September 2019, he was sentenced to an additional two years imprisonment for attempting to bribe a court official with US$10,000 for information regarding the initial corruption case against him.^[11] On 5 January 2021, he was found guilty of illicit enrichment and was ordered to pay an additional US$4.4 million.^[12]

In May 2021, the United States named five members of President Nayib Bukele's government as being corrupt.^[13]

On 22 July 2021, the Attorney General Rodolfo Delgado ordered the arrest of former President Salvador Sánchez Cerén (2014–2019) as a part of a corruption probe. He was charged with embezzlement, money laundering, and illegal enrichment during his presidency. Sánchez Cerén remains in exile in Nicaragua.^[14]

In October 2021, former President Alfredo Cristiani (1989–1994) was named in the Pandora Papers as having used companies in Panama and the British Virgin Islands to hide funds.^[4] In June 2023, Cristiani's properties were raided and seized by the office of the attorney general as a part of a "war against corruption".^[15]

Negotiations with gangs

Salvadoran politicians from the Nationalist Republican Alliance (ARENA), the Grand Alliance for National Unity (GANA), Nuevas Ideas (NI), and the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN) have been accused of paying criminal gangs (Mara Salvatrucha and 18th Street gang) to support their electoral campaigns.^[16] Criminal gangs were also known for organizing extortion schemes.^[17]

Funes' government organized a truce between the government and the gangs to lower the country's crime rate between 2012 and 2014. Funes has denied ever granting the gangs "perks" during the truce.^[18]

On 23 July 2020, David Munguía Payés, a former Minister of National Defense (2009–2011, 2013–2019), was arrested for allegedly negotiating a truce with gangs to reduce crime.^[19]

In September 2020, the news website El Faro accused Bukele of secretly negotiating with gangs to lower the country's murder rate in exchange for better prison conditions. Bukele denied the accusations and launched an investigation into El Faro for money laundering.^[20] In December 2012, the United States Department of the Treasury also accused Bukele of negotiating with gangs to lower the murder rate, which Bukele again denied.^[21]

On 4 June 2021, Ernesto Muyshondt, a former mayor of San Salvador (2018–2021), was arrested under suspicion of having committed electoral fraud and illegal negotiations with criminal gangs to gain votes for ARENA in the 2014 presidential election.^[22][23] On 11 November 2022, Norman Quijano, a former mayor of San Salvador (2012–2015), was ordered to stand trial for allegedly offering gangs favors in exchange for their support for his 2014 presidential campaign.^[24]

Other cases

In October 2021, two deputies of the Legislative Assembly, José Ilofio García Torres and Gerardo Balmore Aguilar Soriano, were accused of "conspiracy against the political institution" for allegedly being bribed with "perks" such as U.S. citizenship by the embassy of the United States in San Salvador to fracture 15 to 25 deputies of Nuevas Ideas to oppose Bukele's political agenda.^[25][26] The U.S. embassy denied the allegations.^[27] In February 2023, García Torres was sentenced to three years imprisonment for corruption.^[28]

Anti-corruption efforts

On 6 September 2019, Bukele announced the establishment of the International Commission Against Impunity in El Salvador (CICIES) (es) as a joint effort with the Organization of American States (OAS) to combat corruption, drug trafficking, and white collar crimes in the country. CICIES would cooperate with the anti-corruption unit of the National Civil Police (PNC).^[29] CICIES was dissolved on 4 June 2021 by the Salvadoran government in protest of the OAS' decision to appoint Muyshondt as an anti-corruption advisor.^[30]

Corruption Perceptions Index

The following graph and table display's El Salvador's placement and score in Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) since 1998, the first year the country was included in the index.

In the Corruption Perceptions Indexes of 1998 to 2011, countries were scored on a scale from 0 ("perceived as highly corrupt") to 10 ("perceived as very clean"). The rank in the Index was computed separately from the score. In the methodology used to create these Indexes, the ranks and scores were not intended to be compared from year to year; a country's rank or score in a given year's Index is meaningful only in relation the ranks and scores of other countries that year.^[31]

Rank by year

Score by year

Year	Rank	Score		Ref.
1998	51		3.6	[32]
1999	49		3.9	[33]
2000	43		4.1	[34]
2001	54		3.6	[35]
2002	62		3.4	[36]
2003	59		3.7	[37]
2004	51		4.2	[38]
2005	51		4.2	[39]
2006	57		4.0	[40]
2007	67		4.0	[41]
2008	67		3.9	[42]
2009	84		3.4	[43]
2010	78		3.6	[44]
2011	80		3.4	[45]

Starting in 2012, a different methodology was used to create the CPI. The 1998-2011 Corruption Perception Indexes are therefore not directly comparable with the Indexes of 2012 and after.

To underline the difference between the two sets of Indexes, those of 2012 and after score countries on a scale from 0 ("highly corrupt") to 100 ("very clean"), in contrast to the 0 to 10 scale of the 1998-2011 Indexes. The countries are then ranked by score; the country ranked first is perceived to have the most honest public sector. Scores computed for the 2012 CPI and afterwards can be meaningfully compared from year to year, as long as the year is 2012 or later^[46][47]

Year	Rank	Rank Δ	Score		Score Δ	Ref.
2012	83	n/a		38	n/a	[48]
2013	83	0		38	0	[49]
2014	80	3		39	1	[50]
2015	72	8		39	0	[51]
2016	95	23		36	3	[52]
2017	112	17		33	3	[53]
2018	105	7		35	2	[54]
2019	113	8		34	1	[55]
2020	104	9		36	2	[56]
2021	115	11		34	2	[57]
2022	116	1		33	1	[58]
2023	126	10		31	2	[59]

References

1. "Cid Gallup: Salvadoreños Perciben Menor Corrupción que Otros Países" [Cid Gallup: Salvadoran Perceive Less Corruption to Other Countries]. El Mundo (in Spanish). 23 February 2023. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
2. "El Salvador Ex-President Francisco Flores Turns Himself In". BBC. 6 September 2014. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
3. "Former President of El Salvador Francisco Flores Dead at 56". USA Today. San Salvador, El Salvador. 31 January 2016. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
4. Grasso, Danielle; Zerega, Georgina; Álvarez, José A. (3 October 2021). "Los Más Poderosos de América Latina y Sus Vinculaciones con Negocios 'Offshore' en los 'Papeles de Pandora'" [The Most Powerful of Latin America and Their Bindings with "Offshore" Investments in the "Pandora Papers"]. El País (in Spanish). Retrieved 23 February 2023.
5. Renteria, Nelson (10 February 2016). "Ex-President of El Salvador Faces Trial Over Source of $700,000". Reuters. San Salvador, El Salvador. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
6. Renteria, Nelson (28 November 2017). "El Salvador Court Finds Ex-President Funes Illegally Enriched Himself". Reuters. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
7. Renteria, Nelson (21 March 2019). "El Salvador's Top Court Approves Extradition Request for Ex-President Funes". Reuters. Archived from the original on 8 December 2022. Retrieved 25 February 2023.
8. "El Salvador: Expresidente Funes, Juicio por Lavado de Activo" [El Salvador: Former President Funes, Trial for Asset Laundering]. Associated Press (in Spanish). San Salvador, El Salvador. 23 February 2023. Retrieved 25 February 2023.
9. Reed, Betsy (6 September 2016). "Former El Salvador President Granted Asylum in Nicaragua, Government Says". The Guardian. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
10. Renteria, Nelson (12 September 2018). "Former El Salvador President Sentenced to 10 Years in Prison". Reuters. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
11. Renteria, Nelson (19 September 2019). "Former El Salvador President Saca Gets Two-Year Prison Term for Bribery". Reuters. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
12. "El Salvador Court Convicts Ex-President of Illicit Enrichment". AP News. San Salvador, El Salvador. 5 January 2021. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
13. Renteria, Nelson; Hesson, Ted (17 May 2021). "U.S. Names El Salvador President's Aide on "Corrupt Officials" List". Reuters. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
14. Renteria, Nelson (22 July 2021). "El Salvador Orders Arrest of Ex-President Sánchez Cerén in Graft Probe". Reuters. San Salvador, El Salvador. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
15. "Bukele Anuncia Allanamientos en Propiedades de Expresidente Cristiani". El Mundo (in Spanish). 1 June 2023. Retrieved 1 June 2023.
16. Silva Ávalos, Héctor (24 January 2019). "Political Mafias Helped Empower Gangs, Says El Salvador Security Expert". InSight Crime. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
17. "Corrupt State Actors". InSight Crime. 26 April 2019. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
18. Daugherty, Arron (8 February 2016). "Former El Salvador President Denies Giving Perks to Gangs". InSight Crime. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
19. Renteria, Nelson (23 July 2020). "Ex-Salvadoran Defense Minister Arrested for Suspected Role in Gang Truce". Reuters. San Salvador, El Salvador. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
20. Linthicum, Kate (16 May 2021). "El Salvador's Millennial President is a Man with One Vision: Power". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
21. McFarland, Stephen (15 December 2021). "From Bad to Worse: Nayib Bukele's Split with Washington". Americas Quarterly. Retrieved 24 February 2023.
22. Villarán, Julio (4 June 2021). "PNC Captura al Ernesto Muyshondt por Apropiación Indebida de Retenciones en Perjuicio de la Hacienda Pública" [PNC Captures Ernesto Muyshondt for Misappropriation of Retentions to the Detriment of the Public Finance]. La Página (in Spanish). Retrieved 4 June 2021.
23. "El Salvador Ends Anti-Corruption Accord with OAS, Dismaying U.S." Reuters. 4 June 2021. Retrieved 8 June 2021.
24. Cerón, Leonardo (11 November 2022). "Norman Quijano Enfrentará Juicio por Negociar con Pandillas" [Norman Quijano to Face Trial for Negotiating with Gangs]. El Mundo (in Spanish). Retrieved 23 February 2023.
25. "El Salvador: Partido Oficialista Separa a Dos Diputados por "Conspiración"" [El Salvador: Party Officially Separates from Two Deputies for "Conspiracy"]. DW (in Spanish). 30 October 2021. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
26. "Nuevas Ideas Separará de la Fracción a los Dos Diputados Implicados en la Conspiración" [Nuevas Ideas Separates the Two Deputies Implicated in the Conspiracy from the Fraction]. Diario La Huella (in Spanish). 30 October 2021. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
27. "Statement from U.S. Embassy Spokesperson". Embassy of the United States, San Salvador. 31 October 2021. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
28. "Exdiputado que Aceptó Soborno a Cambio de Favores Políticos es Condenado a Tres Años de Cárcel" [Ex-Deputy who Accepted Bribe in Exchange for Political Favors is Condemned to Three Years in Prison]. Diario La Huella (in Spanish). 20 February 2023. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
29. "¿Cómo Funcionará la CICIES?" [How Will CICIES Function?]. La Prensa Gráfica (in Spanish). 7 September 2019. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
30. Alfaro, Xiomara; Beltrán, Jorge (4 June 2021). "Fiscal Impuesto da por Finalizado Convenio con la CICIES tras Nombramiento de Ernesto Muyshondt como Asesor de la OEA" [Tax Prosecutor Terminates Agreement with CICIES after Appointment of Ernesto Muyshondt as OAS Advisor]. El Salvador.com (in Spanish). Retrieved 23 February 2023.
31. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2011 Frequently Asked Questions" (Press release). Berlin: Transparency International. 1 December 2011. 2_CPI2011_FAQS_EN.pdf. Retrieved 16 July 2023. Can country/territory scores in the 2011 CPI be compared to those in past indexes? The CPI is not designed to allow for country scores to be compared over time. This is because the index draws on a country's rank in the original data sources, rather than its score. A rank will always deliver only relative information – and therefore a ranking is a one off assessment. A country's rank in a given data source can change a) if perceptions of corruption in other countries included in that source change or b) if countries are added or removed from that data source.
32. "Corruption Perceptions Index 1998". Transparency International. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
33. "Corruption Perceptions Index 1999". Transparency International. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
34. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2000". Transparency International. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
35. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2001". Transparency International. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
36. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2002". Transparency International. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
37. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2003". Transparency International. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
38. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2004". Transparency International. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
39. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2005". Transparency International. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
40. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2006". Transparency International. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
41. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2007". Transparency International. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
42. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2008". Transparency International. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
43. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2009". Transparency International. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
44. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2010". Transparency International. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
45. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2011". Transparency International. Retrieved 23 February 2023.
46. "The ABCs of the CPI: How the Corruption Perceptions Index is calculated". Transparency.org. Retrieved 14 July 2023.
47. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2012: An updated methodology" (PDF). www.transparency.org. Transparency International. Retrieved 16 July 2023. To reflect the updates that have been made to the methodology, the CPI 2012 will henceforth be presented on a 0-100 scale. This is to clearly demonstrate that scores from the CPI 2011 and previous editions should not be compared with scores from 2012
48. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2012". Transparency International. Retrieved 16 July 2023.
49. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2013". Transparency International. Retrieved 16 July 2023.
50. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2014". Transparency International. Retrieved 16 July 2023.
51. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2015". Transparency International. Retrieved 16 July 2023.
52. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2016". Transparency International. Retrieved 16 July 2023.
53. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2017". Transparency International. Retrieved 16 July 2023.
54. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2018". Transparency International. Retrieved 16 July 2023.
55. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2019". Transparency International. Retrieved 16 July 2023.
56. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2020". Transparency International. Retrieved 16 July 2023.
57. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2021". Transparency International. Retrieved 16 July 2023.
58. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2022". Transparency International. Retrieved 16 July 2023.
59. "Corruption Perceptions Index 2023". Transparency International. Retrieved 16 July 2023.