Common Security and Defence Policy

This article is about the European Union's (EU) own defence arm. For the EU's relationship with NATO, which TEU Article 42(2) describes as the "main forum for the implementation of collective self-defence", see European Union–NATO relations.

The Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) is the European Union's (EU) course of action in the fields of defence and crisis management, and a main component of the EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP).

"CSDP" redirects here. For other uses, see CSDP (disambiguation).

Common Security and Defence Policy (European Defence Union)
Arms of the Military Staff (EUMS), which includes the EU's permanent operational headquarters, MPCC
Founded	1999 (as the European Security and Defence Policy)
Current form	2009 (Treaty of Lisbon)
Headquarters	Military (MPCC) and Civilian (CPCC) Planning and Conduct Capabilities, Kortenberg building, Brussels, Belgium
Website	eeas.europa.eu
Leadership
High Representative	Josep Borrell
Director General of the Military Staff	LTG Esa Pulkkinen
Chairman of the Military Committee	GEN Robert Brieger
Personnel
Active personnel	1,410,626 (2016)[1]
Reserve personnel	2,330,803
Expenditure
Budget	€223.4 billion ($249.3 billion) (2018)[2]
Percent of GDP	1.5% (2020)[3]
Related articles
History	History of the Common Security and Defence Policy

The CSDP involves the deployment of military or civilian missions to preserve peace, prevent conflict and strengthen international security in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter. Military missions are carried out by EU forces established with secondments from the member states' armed forces. The CSDP also entails collective self-defence amongst member states^[a] as well as a Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) in which 26 of the 27 national armed forces pursue structural integration. The CSDP structure – headed by the Union's High Representative (HR/VP), Josep Borrell, and sometimes referred to as the European Defence Union (EDU) in relation to its prospective development as the EU's defence arm^[4][5][6][b] – comprises:

• the European Commission's Defence Industry Directorate-General
• the External Action Service's (EEAS) Crisis Management and Planning Directorate (CMPD) and permanent Operation Headquarters (OHQs) for command and control (C2) at the military/civilian strategic level, i.e. the MPCC and CPCC.
• a number of Foreign Affairs Council (FAC) preparatory bodies – such as the Military Committee (EUMC)
• four agencies, including the Defence Agency (EDA).

The EU command and control structures are much smaller than the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's (NATO) Command Structure (NCS), which has been established for territorial defence. It has been agreed that NATO's Allied Command Operations (ACO) may be used for the conduct of the EU's missions. The MPCC, established in 2017 and to be strengthened in 2020, is the EU's first permanent military OHQ. In parallel, the newly established European Defence Fund (EDF) marks the first time the EU budget is used to finance multinational defence projects.

Decisions relating to the CSDP are proposed by the High Representative, adopted by the Foreign Affairs Council, generally requiring unanimity, to be then implemented by the High Representative.

History

Main article: History of the Common Security and Defence Policy

The commands of Western Union service branches were situated in the Palace of Fontainebleau from 1948 until they were transformed into NATO's Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe in 1951.

Organigramme for the European Defence Community (EDC), which – if ratified – would have created a unified defence arm for the later to be established European Political Community (EPC). This force would represent an autonomous European pillar within NATO, under the authority of the Supreme Commander.

The post-war period saw several short-lived or ill-fated initiatives for European defence integration intended to protect against potential Soviet or German aggression: The Western Union (WU, also referred to as the Brussels Treaty Organisation, BTO) and the proposed European Defence Community (EDC) were respectively cannibalised by the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and rejected by the French Parliament. The largely dormant Western European Union (WEU) succeeded the WU's remainder in 1955.

In 1970 the European Political Cooperation (EPC) brought about the European Communities' (EC) initial foreign policy coordination. Opposition to the addition of security and defence matters to the EPC led to the reactivation of the WEU in 1984 by its member states, which were also EC member states.

European defence integration gained momentum soon after the end of the Cold War, partly as a result of the EC's failure to prevent the Yugoslav Wars. In 1992, the WEU was given new tasks, and the following year the Treaty of Maastricht founded the EU and replaced the EPC with the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) pillar. In 1996 NATO agreed to let the WEU develop a so-called European Security and Defence Identity (ESDI).^[7] The 1998 St. Malo declaration signalled that the traditionally hesitant United Kingdom was prepared to provide the EU with autonomous defence structures.^[8] This facilitated the transformation of the ESDI into the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) in 1999, when it was transferred to the EU. In 2003 the EU deployed its first CSDP missions, and adopted the European Security Strategy identifying common threats and objectives. In 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon introduced the present name, CSDP, while establishing the EEAS, the mutual defence clause and enabling a subset of member states to pursue defence integration within PESCO. In 2011 the WEU, whose tasks had been transferred to the EU, was dissolved. In 2016 a new security strategy was introduced, which along with the Russian annexation of Crimea, the British withdrawal from the EU and the election of Trump as US president have given the CSDP a new impetus

Deployments

Main article: List of military and civilian missions of the European Union

Since 2002, the European Union has intervened abroad thirty-five times in three different continents.^{[citation needed][clarification needed]}

The first deployment of European troops under the ESDP, following the 1999 declaration of intent, was in March 2003 in the Republic of Macedonia (now North Macedonia). Operation Concordia used NATO assets and was considered a success and replaced by a smaller police mission, EUPOL Proxima, later that year. Since then, there have been other small police, justice and monitoring missions. As well as in the Republic of Macedonia, the EU has maintained its deployment of peacekeepers in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as part of Operation Althea.^[9]

Between May and September 2003 EU troops were deployed to the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) during "Operation Artemis" under a mandate given by UN Security Council Resolution 1484 which aimed to prevent further atrocities and violence in the Ituri Conflict and put the DRC's peace process back on track. This laid out the "framework nation" system to be used in future deployments. The EU returned to the DRC during July–November 2006 with EUFOR RD Congo, which supported the UN mission there during the country's elections.

Geographically, EU missions outside the Balkans and the DRC have taken place in Georgia, Indonesia, Sudan, Palestine, and Ukraine–Moldova. There is also a judicial mission in Iraq (EUJUST Lex). On 28 January 2008, the EU deployed its largest and most multi-national mission to Africa, EUFOR Tchad/RCA.^[10] The UN-mandated mission involves troops from 25 EU states (19 in the field) deployed in areas of eastern Chad and the north-eastern Central African Republic in order to improve security in those regions. EUFOR Tchad/RCA reached full operation capability in mid-September 2008, and handed over security duties to the UN (MINURCAT mission) in mid-March 2009.^[11]

The EU launched its first maritime CSDP operation on 12 December 2008 (Operation Atalanta). The concept of the European Union Naval Force (EU NAVFOR) was created on the back of this operation, which is still successfully combatting piracy off the coast of Somalia almost a decade later. A second such intervention was launched in 2015 to tackle migration problems in the southern Mediterranean (EUNAVFOR Med), working under the name Operation SOPHIA.

Most of the CSDP missions deployed so far are mandated to support security sector reforms (SSR) in host-states. One of the core principles of CSDP support to SSR is local ownership. The EU Council defines ownership as "the appropriation by the local authorities of the commonly agreed objectives and principles".^[12] Despite EU's strong rhetorical attachment to the local ownership principle, research shows that CSDP missions continue to be an externally driven, top-down and supply-driven endeavour, resulting often in the low degree of local participation.^[13]

Structure

Main article: Structure of the Common Security and Defence Policy

High Representative Josep Borrell

The CSDP involves military or civilian missions being deployed to preserve peace, prevent conflict and strengthen international security in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter. Military missions are carried out by EU forces established with contributions from the member states' armed forces. The CSDP also entails collective self-defence amongst member states^[a] as well as a Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) in which 26 of the 27 national armed forces pursue structural integration. The CSDP structure, headed by the Union's High Representative (HR/VP), Josep Borrell, comprises:

• the Defence Industry Directorate-General of the European Commission
• relevant sections of the External Action Service (EEAS) — including the Military Staff (EUMS) with its so-called Military Planning and Conduct Capability (MPCC)
• a number of Foreign Affairs Council (FAC) preparatory bodies – such as the Military Committee (EUMC)
• four agencies, including the European Defence Agency (EDA).

While the EU has a command and control (C2) structure, it has no standing permanent military structure along the lines of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's (NATO) Allied Command Operations (ACO), although it has been agreed that ACO resources may be used for the conduct of the EU's CSDP missions. The MPCC, established in 2017 and to be strengthened in 2020, does however represent the EU's first step in developing a permanent military headquarters. In parallel, the newly established European Defence Fund (EDF) marks the first time the EU budget is used to finance multinational defence projects. The CSDP structure is sometimes referred to as the European Defence Union (EDU), especially in relation to its prospective development as the EU's defence arm.^[4][5][6][c]

Decisions relating to the CSDP are proposed by the HR/VP, adopted by the FAC, generally requiring unanimity, and then implemented by the HR/VP. The EU command and control (C2) structure is directed by political bodies composed of member states' representatives, and generally requires unanimous decisions. As of April 2019:^[14]

Liaison:       Advice and recommendations       Support and monitoring       Preparatory work     

• v
• t
• e

Political strategic level:[5]

ISS

EUCO Pres. (EUCO)

Chain of command

Coordination/support

SatCen

CIVCOM

HR/VP (FAC)

INTCEN

HR/VP (PMG)

HR/VP (PSC)[6]

CEUMC (EUMC)

CMPD

DGEUMS[3] (EUMS)

Military/civilian strategic level:

Dir MPCC[3] (MPCC)

JSCC

Civ OpCdr CPCC[1]

Operational level:

MFCdr[4] (MFHQ)

HoM[1]

Tactical level:

CC[2] Land

CC[2] Air

CC[2] Mar

Other CCs[2]

Forces

Forces

Forces

Forces

¹ In the event of a CSDP Civilian Mission also being in the field, the relations with the Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability (CPCC) and its Civilian Operation Commander (Civ OpCdr), as well as the subordinate Head of Mission (HoM), are coordinated as shown.

² Other Component Commanders (CCs) and service branches which may be established.

³ The MPCC is part of the EUMS and Dir MPCC is double-hatted as DGEUMS. Unless the MPCC is used as Operation Headquarters (OHQ), either a national OHQ offered by member states or the NATO Command Structure (NCS) would serve this purpose. In the latter instance, Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe (DSACEUR), rather than Dir MPCC, would serve as Operation Commander (OpCdr).

⁴ Unless the MPCC is used as Operation Headquarters (OHQ), the MFCdr would be known as a Force Commander (FCdr), and direct a Force Headquarters (FHQ) rather than a MFHQ. Whereas the MFHQ would act both on the operational and tactical level, the FHQ would act purely on the operational level.

⁵ The political strategic level is not part of the C2 structure per se, but represents the political bodies, with associated support facilities, that determine the missions' general direction. The Council determines the role of the High Representative (HR/VP), who serves as Vice-President of the European Commission, attends European Council meetings, chairs the Foreign Affairs Council (FAC) and may chair the Political and Security Committee (PSC) in times of crisis. The HR/VP proposes and implements CSDP decisions.

⁶ Same composition as Committee of Permanent Representatives (COREPER) II, which also prepares for the CSDP-related work of the FAC.

Strategy

Main article: European Union Global Strategy

The European Union Global Strategy (EUGS) is the updated doctrine of the EU to improve the effectiveness of the CSDP, including the defence and security of the members states, the protection of civilians, cooperation between the member states' armed forces, management of immigration, crises etc. Adopted on 28 June 2016,^[15] it replaces the European Security Strategy of 2003. The EUGS is complemented by a document titled "Implementation Plan on Security and Defense" (IPSD).^[16] Deterrence theory is applied to deter aggressors as one of the core mandates of Common Security and Defence Policy, yet lacks credibility due to insufficient resources.^[17]

Forces

Main article: Defence forces of the European Union

A new Action Plan on military mobility and cyber resilience was released 10 November 2022.^[18]

National

National armed forces' personnel combined (2016)^[19]

• v
• t
• e

The CSDP is implemented using civilian and military contributions from member states' armed forces, which also are obliged to collective self-defence based on Treaty on European Union (TEU).

Five EU states host nuclear weapons: France has its own nuclear programmes, while Belgium, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands host US nuclear weapons as part of NATO's nuclear sharing policy. Combined, the EU possesses 300 warheads, and hosts between 90 and 130 US warheads. Italy hosts 70-90 B61 nuclear bombs, while Germany, Belgium, and the Netherlands 10-20 each one.^[20] The EU has the third largest arsenal of nuclear weapons, after the United States and Russia.

Expenditure and personnel

Further information: List of countries by military expenditures

The following table presents the military expenditures of the members of the European Union in euros (€). The combined military expenditure of the member states amounted to €223.4 billion in 2018.^[2] This represents 1.4% of European Union GDP. European military expenditure includes spending on joint projects such as the Eurofighter Typhoon and joint procurement of equipment. The European Union's combined active military forces in 2016 totaled 1,410,626 personnel.^[1]

In a speech in 2012, Swedish General Håkan Syrén criticised the spending levels of European Union countries, saying that in the future those countries' military capability will decrease, creating "critical shortfalls".^[21]

Guide to table:

• All figure entries in the table below are provided by the European Defence Agency for the year 2017, except for Germany's personnel figure, which is for 2016. Figures from other sources are not included.
• The "operations & maintenance expenditure" category may in some circumstances also include finances on-top of the nations defence budget.
• The categories "troops prepared for deployed operations" and "troops prepared for deployed and sustained operation" only include land force personnel.

Member state	Expenditure (€ mn.)	Per capita (€)	% of GDP	Operations & maintenance expenditure (€ mn.)	Active military personnel	Land troops prepared for deployed and sustained operations	Reserve personnel
Austria[1]	2,673	301	0.74	574	24,190	1,100	950,000
Belgium[1]	5,672	349	1.1	680	27,789	1,293	3,300
Bulgaria[1]	1,140	109	1.56	118	30,218	1,168	3,000
Croatia[1]	950	149	1.5	154	14,862	796	18,343
Cyprus[1]	470	409	1.83	63	20,000	0	75,000
Czech Republic[1]	3,310	184	1.46	474	23,036	672	3,236
Estonia[1]	748	363	2.31	158	6,178	100	60,000
Finland[1]	4,873	523	2.15	919	7,515	1,738	900,000
France[1]	49,700	609	1.79	10,201	208,251	17,000	38,550
Germany[1]	57,300	489	1.53		177,608		29,200
Greece[1]	7,086	393	3.82	504	106,624	2,432
Hungary[1]	2,200	122	1.66	492	23,846	1,000	20,000
Ireland[1]	780	191	0.31	103	9,500	850	1,778
Italy[1]	26,310	339	1.6	1,583	181,116		18,300
Latvia[1]	758	243	2.23	132	5,686	75	3,000
Lithuania[1]	1,028	256	2.13	145	14,350		26,000
Luxembourg[1]	389	484	0.56	30	824	57
Malta[1]	54	122	0.51	8	1,808	30
Netherlands[1]	12,900	507	1.5	2,144	40,196	1,500	5,046
Poland[1]	11,940	226	2.2	1,918	106,500	60	75,400
Portugal[1]	3,975	235	1.6	142	32,726	1,698
Romania[1]	5,590	185	2.0	277	69,542	2,961	50,000
Slovakia[1]	1,520	183	1.75	198	13,152	846
Slovenia[1]	548	204	1.04	72	6,342	707	1,000
Spain[1]	15,660	231	1.2	1,891	120,812	7,410	15,150
Sweden[1]	5,620	460	1.1	1,973	14,500	750	34,500
EU[1]	222,194	365	1.50		1,287,171		2,330,803

Naval forces

Charles de Gaulle aircraft carrier is one of the largest commissioned warships in the European Union.

The combined component strength of the naval forces of member states is some 514 commissioned warships. Of those in service, 4 are fleet carriers. The EU also has 4 amphibious assault ships and 20 amphibious support ships in service. Of the EU's 49 submarines, 10 are nuclear-powered submarines while 39 are conventional attack submarines.

Operation Atalanta (formally European Union Naval Force Somalia) is the first ever (and still ongoing) naval operation of the European Union. It is part of a larger global action by the EU in the Horn of Africa to deal with the Somali crisis. As of January 2011 twenty-three EU nations participate in the operation.

France and Italy have blue-water navies.^[22]

Guide to table:

• Ceremonial vessels, research vessels, supply vessels, training vessels, and icebreakers are not included.
• The table only counts warships that are commissioned (or equivalent) and active.
• Surface vessels displacing less than 200 tonnes are not included, regardless of other characteristics.
• The "amphibious support ship" category includes amphibious transport docks and dock landing ships, and tank landing ships.
• Frigates over 6,000 tonnes are classified as destroyers.
• The "patrol vessel" category includes missile boats.
• The "anti-mine ship" category includes mine countermeasures vessels, minesweepers and minehunters.
• Generally, total tonnage of ships is more important than total number of ships, as it gives a better indication of capability.

Member state	Fleet carrier	Amphibious assault ship	Amphibious support ship	Destroyer	Frigate	Corvette	Patrol vessel	Anti-mine ship	Missile sub.	Attack sub.	Total	Tonnage
Austria											0	0
Belgium[23]					2		2	5			9	10,009
Bulgaria			1		4	3	1	10			18	15,160
Croatia							5	2			7	2,869
Cyprus							5				5	0
Czech Republic											0	0
Denmark[24]				5	4		9				18	51,235
Estonia								3			3	2,000
Finland						4	4	12			20	5,429
France[25]	1[d]	3		13	11		20	18	4	6	76	319,195
Germany[26]				3	7	5	8	15		6	44	82,790
Greece[27]			9		13		33[28]	4		11[28]	70	138,565
Hungary											0	0
Ireland[29]							8				8	11,219
Italy[30]	2[e]+1[f]	(1)[f]	3[g]	4	16	5	11	10		8	59	303,411
Latvia								5			5	3,025
Lithuania[31]							4	4			8	5,678
Luxembourg											0	0
Malta[32]							2				2	1,419
Netherlands[33]			2	4	2		4	6		4	22	116,308
Poland[34]			5		2	1	3	19		3	28	19,724
Portugal[35]					5	7	7			2	23	34,686
Romania[36]					3	7	6	5			21	23,090
Slovakia											0	0
Slovenia[37]							1	1			2	435
Spain[38]	1[h]	(1)[h]	2[i]	5[j]	6[k]		23	6		3	46	148,607
Sweden[39]						6		11		5	22	14,256
EU	4	4	22	34	75	38	156	136	4	48	514 ~516	1,309,110 ~1,309,110

Land forces

The Leopard 2 main battle tank

Combined, the member states of the European Union maintain large numbers of various land-based military vehicles and weaponry.

Guide to table:

• The table is not exhaustive and primarily includes vehicles and EU-NATO member countries under the Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty (CFE treaty). Unless otherwise specified.
• The CFE treaty only includes vehicles stationed within Europe, vehicles overseas on operations are not counted.
• The "main battle tank" category also includes tank destroyers (such as the Italian B1 Centauro) or any self-propelled armoured fighting vehicle, capable of heavy firepower. According to the CFE treaty.
• The "armoured fighting vehicle" category includes any armoured vehicle primarily designed to transport infantry and equipped with an automatic cannon of at least 20 mm calibre. According to the CFE treaty.
• The "artillery" category includes self-propelled or towed howitzers and mortars of 100 mm calibre and above. Other types of artillery are not included regardless of characteristics. According to the CFE treaty.
• The "attack helicopter" category includes any rotary wing aircraft armed and equipped to engage targets or equipped to perform other military functions (such as the Apache or the Wildcat). According to the CFE treaty.
• The "military logistics vehicle" category includes logistics trucks of 4-tonne, 8-tonne, 14-tonne or larger, purposely designed for military tasking. Not under CFE treaty.

Member state	Main battle tank	Armoured fighting vehicle	Artillery	Attack helicopter	Military logistics vehicle
Austria	56	364	90
Belgium[40]		521	155	27
Bulgaria[40]	362	681	1,035	12
Croatia[41]	75	283	127	10
Cyprus	134	169	234	15	398
Czech Republic[40]	123	501	182	24
Denmark[40]	46	229	56	12
Estonia[42]			74
Finland	200	1,080	722	25
France[40]	450	6,256	349	283	10,746
Germany[40]	815	1,774	401	158
Greece[40]	1,622	2,187	1,920	29
Hungary[40]	90	634	35	8	471
Ireland[43]		107	36
Italy[40]	1,176	3,145	1,446	107	10,921
Latvia
Lithuania[44]		88	96
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands[40]	16	634	135	21
Poland[45]	1,675	3,110	1,580	83
Portugal[40]	220	425	377
Romania[40]	857	1,272	1,273	23
Slovakia[40]	30	327	68
Slovenia	76	52	63
Spain[40]	484	1,007	811	27
Sweden	120	978	268
EU[40]	8,413	25,421	11,259	822

Air forces

The air forces of EU member states operate a wide range of military systems and hardware. This is primarily due to the independent requirements of each member state and also the national defence industries of some member states. However such programmes like the Eurofighter Typhoon and Eurocopter Tiger have seen many European nations design, build and operate a single weapons platform. 60% of overall combat fleet was developed and manufactured by member states, 32% are US-origin, but some of these were assembled in Europe, while remaining 8% are soviet-made aircraft. As of 2014, it is estimated that the European Union had around 2,000 serviceable combat aircraft (fighter aircraft and ground-attack aircraft).^[46]

The EUs air-lift capabilities are evolving with the future introduction of the Airbus A400M (another example of EU defence cooperation). The A400M is a tactical airlifter with strategic capabilities.^[47] Around 140 are initially expected to be operated by 5 member states (Luxembourg, France, Germany, Spain and Belgium).

Guide to tables:

• The tables are sourced from figures provided by Flight International for the year 2020.
• Aircraft are grouped into three main types (indicated by colours): red for combat aircraft, green for aerial refueling aircraft, and grey for strategic and tactical transport aircraft.
• The two "other" columns include additional aircraft according to their type sorted by colour (i.e. the "other" category in red includes combat aircraft, while the "other" category in grey includes both aerial refueling and transport aircraft). This was done because it was not feasible allocate every aircraft type its own column.
• Other aircraft such as trainers, helicopters, UAVs and reconnaissance or surveillance aircraft are not included in the below tables or figures.

Fighter and ground-attack

Member state	Typhoon	Rafale	Mirage 2000	Gripen	F-16	F/A-18	F-35	Tornado	Other	Total
Austria[46]	15									15
Belgium[46]					52		(34 ordered)			52
Bulgaria[46]					(16 ordered)				13 MiG-29 7 Su-25	20
Croatia[46]		(12 ordered)							12 MiG-21	12
Cyprus[46]
Czech Republic[46]				12			(24 ordered)		16 L-159	28
Denmark[46]					33		4 (23 ordered)			33
Estonia[46]
Finland[46]						62	(64 ordered)			62
France[46]		135 (134 ordered)	97							232
Germany[46]	134 (38)						(35 ordered)	81	30 Tornado ECR	245
Greece[46]		20 (4 ordered)	24		153[48]		(20 ordered)		33 F-4	234[48]
Hungary[46]				14						14
Ireland[46]
Italy[46]	94						30 (108 ordered)	71	58 AMX, 15 Harrier II, 13 Tornado ECR	281[49]
Latvia[46]
Lithuania[46]
Luxembourg[46]
Malta[46]
Netherlands[46]					29		26 (26 ordered)			55
Poland[46]					48		(32 ordered)		12 T-50 (36 ordered) 19 MiG-29 18 Su-22	97
Portugal[46]					25					25
Romania[46]					17				16 MiG-21	33
Slovakia[46]					2 (10 ordered)					2 (12)
Slovenia[46]
Spain[46]	68 (20 ordered)					84			12 Harrier II	164
Sweden[46]				94 (70 ordered)						94
EU[46]	311	141	139	120	357	146	60 (346)	152	287	1,713

Aerial refueling and transport

Member state	A330 MRTT	A310 MRTT	KC-135/707	C-17	C-130	C-160	C-27J	CN-235/C-295	An-26	A400M	C-390	Other	Total
Austria[46]					3						(4 ordered)	8 PC-6	11
Belgium[46]					9					7		3 ERJ-135/145	19
Bulgaria[46]							2		1			1 L-410 & 1 PC-12	5
Croatia[46]
Cyprus[46]												1 BN-2	1
Czech Republic[46]								4				4 L-410	8
Denmark[46]					4								4
Estonia[46]												2 An-28/M28	2
Finland[46]								3				3 Learjet 35 & 6 PC-12NG	12
France[46]	2		14		16	15		27		15		3 A340	92
Germany[46]		4				42				31		2 A319	76
Greece[46]					13		8						21
Hungary[46]									4		1 (1 ordered)		5
Ireland[46]								2				1 BNT-2 CC2/B	3
Italy[46]					16		12					4 KC-767 3 KC-130J 3 A319	38
Latvia[46]
Lithuania[46]							3					1	4
Luxembourg[46]										1			1
Malta[46]												2 BNT-2 CC2/B 2 King Air 200	4
Netherlands[46]					4						(5 ordered)	2 (K)DC-10	6
Poland[46]					5			16					20
Portugal[46]					6			7			1 (4 ordered)		14
Romania[46]					2		7		2				11
Slovakia[46]							2					5 Let L-410 Turbolet	7
Slovenia[46]												1 Let L-410 Turbolet 2 Pilatus PC-6 Porter 1 Dassault Falcon 2000	4
Spain[46]			2		7			21		6		5 KC-130H 2 A310	37
Sweden[46]					7							1 KC-130H	8
Shared within EU	3 (6) part of MMF												3
EU[46]	5	4	16	0	83	107	30	81	16	60	2 (14)	41	393

Multinational

Established at Union level

Irish Army personnel from the Nordic Battle Group at an exercise in 2010

The Helsinki Headline Goal Catalogue is a listing of rapid reaction forces composed of 60,000 troops managed by the European Union, but under control of the countries who deliver troops for it.

Forces introduced at Union level include:

• The battle groups (BG) adhere to the CSDP, and are based on contributions from a coalition of member states. Each of the eighteen Battlegroups consists of a battalion-sized force (1,500 troops) reinforced with combat support elements.^[50][51] The groups rotate actively, so that two are ready for deployment at all times. The forces are under the direct control of the Council of the European Union. The Battlegroups reached full operational capacity on 1 January 2007, although, as of January 2013 they are yet to see any military action.^[52] They are based on existing ad hoc missions that the European Union (EU) has undertaken and has been described by some as a new "standing army" for Europe.^[51] The troops and equipment are drawn from the EU member states under a "lead nation". In 2004, United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan welcomed the plans and emphasised the value and importance of the Battlegroups in helping the UN deal with troublespots.^[53]
• The Medical Command (EMC) is a planned medical command centre in support of EU missions, formed as part of the Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO).^[54] The EMC will provide the EU with a permanent medical capability to support operations abroad, including medical resources and a rapidly deployable medical task force. The EMC will also provide medical evacuation facilities, triage and resuscitation, treatment and holding of patients until they can be returned to duty, and emergency dental treatment. It will also contribute to harmonising medical standards, certification and legal (civil) framework conditions.^[55]
• The Force Crisis Response Operation Core (EUFOR CROC) is a flagship defence project under development as part of Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO). EURFOR CROC will contribute to the creation of a "full spectrum force package" to speed up provision of military forces and the EU's crisis management capabilities.^[56] Rather than creating a standing force, the project involves creating a concrete catalogue of military force elements that would speed up the establishment of a force when the EU decides to launch an operation. It is land-focused and aims to generate a force of 60,000 troops from the contributing states alone. While it does not establish any form of "European army", it foresees an deployable, interoperable force under a single command.^[57] Germany is the lead country for the project, but the French are heavily involved and it is tied to President Emmanuel Macron's proposal to create a standing intervention force. The French see it as an example of what PESCO is about.^[58]

Provided through Article 42.3 TEU

Personnel of the European Corps in Strasbourg, France, during a change of command ceremony in 2013

This section presents an incomplete list of forces and bodies established intergovernmentally amongst a subset of member states. These organisations will deploy forces based on the collective agreement of their member states. They are typically technically listed as being able to be deployed under the auspices of NATO, the United Nations, the European Union (EU) through Article 42.3 of TEU, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, or any other international entity.

However, with the exception of the Eurocorps, very few have actually been deployed for any real military operation, and none under the CSDP at any point in its history.

Land Forces:

• The Eurocorps is an army corps of approximately 1,000 soldiers stationed in Strasbourg, France. Based in the French city of Strasbourg, the corps is the nucleus of the Franco-German Brigade.^[59]
• The I. German/Dutch Corps is a multinational formation consisting of units from the Dutch and German armies. Due to its role as a NATO High Readiness Forces Headquarters, soldiers from other NATO member states, the United States, Denmark, Norway, Spain, Italy, the United Kingdom amongst others, are also stationed at Münster.
• The Multinational Corps Northeast, a Danish-German-Polish multinational corps
• The European Gendarmerie Force, an intervention force with militarised police functions which specializes in crisis management.^[60]

Aerial:

• The European Air Transport Command exercises operational control of the majority of the aerial refueling capabilities and military transport fleets of its participating nations. Located at Eindhoven Airbase in the Netherlands, the command also bears a limited responsibility for exercises, aircrew training and the harmonisation of relevant national air transport regulations.^[61][62] The command was established in 2010 to provide a more efficient management of the participating nations' assets and resources in this field.

Naval:

• The European Maritime Force (EUROMARFOR or EMF) is a non-standing,^[63] military force^[64] that may carry out naval, air and amphibious operations, with an activation time of 5 days after an order is received.^[65] The force was formed in 1995 to fulfill missions defined in the Petersberg Declaration, such as sea control, humanitarian missions, peacekeeping operations, crisis response operations, and peace enforcement.

Participation, relationship with NATO

Further information: European Union–NATO relations

Out of the 27 EU member states, 23 are also members of NATO. Another four NATO members are EU applicants—Albania, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Turkey. Two others—Iceland and Norway—have opted to remain outside of the EU, however participate in the EU's single market. The memberships of the EU and NATO are distinct, and some EU member states are traditionally neutral on defence issues. Several EU member states were formerly members of the Warsaw Pact. Denmark had an opt-out from the CSDP,^[1] however voted in a referendum in 2022 to begin to participate in the policy area.

  Non-European countries

  Transcontinental countries

Comparison of the two main Euro-Atlantic defence organisations

	European Union (in respect of its defence arm, the Common Security and Defence Policy)		NATO
Mutual defence clause	Article 42.7 of the consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union: "If a Member State is the victim of armed aggression on its territory, the other Member States shall have towards it an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in their power, in accordance with Article 51 of the United Nations Charter. This shall not prejudice the specific character of the security and defence policy of certain Member States. [...]"		Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty: "The Parties agree that an armed attack against one or more of them [on their territory] shall be considered an attack against them all and consequently they agree that, if such an armed attack occurs, each of them, in exercise of the right of individual or collective self-defence recognised by Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, will assist the Party or Parties so attacked by taking forthwith, individually and in concert with the other Parties, such action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area. [...]"
	Political strategic organisation
Highest office	High Representative (HR/VP)		Secretary General
Principal decision-making body	Foreign Affairs Council		North Atlantic Council
Liaison body	European External Action Service		International Staff
Seat	Kortenberg building (Brussels, Belgium)		NATO headquarters (Brussels, Belgium)
	Military strategic organisation
Supreme commander	Director of the Military Planning and Conduct Capability		Supreme Allied Commander Europe
Headquarters	Military Planning and Conduct Capability (Brussels, Belgium)		Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (Mons, Belgium)
Chair of chiefs of defence assembly	Chairman of the European Union Military Committee		Chair of the NATO Military Committee
Chiefs of defence assembly	European Union Military Committee		NATO Military Committee
Advisory body	European Union Military Staff		International Military Staff
	Membership	Permanent Structured Cooperation	Membership
Member states of both the EU and NATO
Belgium	Founder	Founder	Founder
Bulgaria	2007	Founder	2004
Croatia	2013	Founder	2009
Czech Republic	2004	Founder	1999
Denmark	1973	2023	Founder
Estonia	2004	Founder	2004
Finland	1995	Founder	2023
France	Founder	Founder	Founder
Germany	Founder	Founder	1955
Greece	1981	Founder	1952
Hungary	2004	Founder	1999
Italy	Founder	Founder	Founder
Latvia	2004	Founder	2004
Lithuania	2004	Founder	2004
Luxembourg	Founder	Founder	Founder
Netherlands	Founder	Founder	Founder
Poland	2004	Founder	1999
Portugal	1986	Founder	Founder
Romania	2007	Founder	2004
Slovakia	2004	Founder	2004
Slovenia	2004	Founder	2004
Spain	1986	Founder	1982
Sweden	1995	Founder	2024
Non-NATO EU member states
Austria	1995	Founder	Partnership for Peace
Cyprus	2004	Founder	No
Ireland	1973	Founder	Partnership for Peace
Malta	2004	No	Partnership for Peace
Non-EU NATO member states
Albania	Candidate	—	2009
Iceland	No	—	Founder
Montenegro	Candidate	—	2017
North Macedonia	Candidate	—	2020
Norway	Defence Agency agreement	—	Founder
Turkey	Candidate	—	1952
United Kingdom	No	—	Founder
European countries outside both the EU and NATO
Andorra	No	—	No
Armenia	No	—	Individual Partnership Action Plan
Azerbaijan	No	—	Individual Partnership Action Plan
Belarus	No	—	Partnership for Peace
Bosnia and Herzegovina	Candidate	—	Membership Action Plan
Georgia	Candidate	—	Intensified Dialogue
Kazakhstan	No	—	Individual Partnership Action Plan
Kosovo	Applicant / Potential candidate	—	No
Liechtenstein	No	—	No
Moldova	Candidate	—	Individual Partnership Action Plan
Monaco	No	—	No
Russia	No	—	Partnership for Peace
San Marino	No	—	No
Serbia	Candidate	—	Individual Partnership Action Plan
Switzerland	Defence Agency agreement	—	Partnership for Peace
Ukraine	Candidate	—	Intensified Dialogue
Vatican City	No	—	No
NATO member states located in North America, which are therefore ineligible for EU membership
Canada	—	—	Founder
United States	—	—	Founder
Members of NATO's Partnership for Peace located outside Europe, which are therefore neither eligible for EU nor NATO membership
Kyrgyzstan	—	—	Partnership for Peace
Tajikistan	—	—	Partnership for Peace
Turkmenistan	—	—	Partnership for Peace
Uzbekistan	—	—	Partnership for Peace

The Berlin Plus agreement is the short title of a comprehensive package of agreements made between NATO and the EU on 16 December 2002.^[66] These agreements were based on conclusions of NATO's 1999 Washington summit, sometimes referred to as the CJTF mechanism,^[67] and allowed the EU to draw on some of NATO's military assets in its own peacekeeping operations.

Chart presented in 2012 by then Director General of the Military Staff Lt. gen. Ton van Osch, asserting that the utility of the combined civilian and military components of the EU policy could be considered more effective than NATO for a limited level of conflict.

EUCAP Somalia

The EUCAP Somalia^[68] is an example of a non-executive, civilian Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) Mission aimed at strengthening maritime security capacities, police sector, as well as promoting the Rule of Law in Somalia.^[69] It provides strategic level advice, mentoring and training, on issues ranging from coast guard and police functions to police-prosecution cooperation and the drafting of laws. Initially launched as EUCAP Nestor^[70] in 2012, the mission was reconfigured to focus on Somalia, thus renamed by the Council of the European Union, EUCAP Somalia in 2016.

Background

The mission was established in response to the persistent challenges posed by maritime insecurity in the Western Indian Ocean, particularly piracy, illegal fishing, human trafficking, and arms smuggling. These issues severely impacted both the security and economic stability of Somalia and the surrounding region. Somalia’s extensive coastline (the longest in mainland Africa) was unprotected for years due to the collapse of the government in the early 1990s.^[71] Piracy flourished in the absence of effective maritime governance, leading to international efforts to assist the country in reclaiming control over its waters. EUCAP Somalia emerged as part of these efforts, complementing other international missions such as Operation Atalanta and EUTM Somalia.

Mandates

From 2012 to 2016

EUCAP Nestor's mandate is divided into two objectives: strengthening the maritime capacities of the beneficiary countries (excluding Somalia) and training a coastal police force and judges in Somalia, the primary aim being to get the countries in the region to work together to strengthen action at sea. EUCAP Nestor operates in five countries: Djibouti, Kenya, Seychelles, Somalia (Puntland/Somaliland) and Tanzania. This is why it is relatively large in terms of staff numbers, with almost 200 people spread across the different countries. These experts provide legal, strategic and operational advice on maritime safety.^[72]

From 2016 to 2021

When the name was changed in December 2016, so too was the mandate. EUCAP Somalia will drop its regional ambitions and focus solely on Somalia, and more specifically on the Coast Guard, with a view to strengthening ‘Somali maritime law enforcement capabilities’. The mandate is not limited to piracy, but covers any criminal activity or offence committed on the coast or in the sea.^[73]

From 2021

In December 2020, the Council of the European Union extended Eucap's mandate until 31 December 20224. From 2021 onwards, the mission will also be helping Somalia to strengthen its police capabilities, in particular by developing the Federal Darwish police force and reinforcing the INTERPOL National Central Bureau in Mogadishu.^[74] The EU's budget for the period 2023-2024 allocated is 81 million €.^[75]

Achievements

Since its reconfiguration in 2016, EUCAP Somalia has made significant strides in enhancing Somalia’s maritime security capabilities. Recent achievements include improving the Somali Police Force's (SPF) command, control, and communication capabilities, as well as enhancing their ability to manage security incidents in Mogadishu. EUCAP has deployed a specialized multinational team to support the SPF's Maritime Police Unit and has played a key role in the development of Somaliland’s Coast Guard, conducting joint exercises with EUNAVFOR Operation ATALANTA. The mission also trained and equipped the Puntland Maritime Police Force, enhancing their capacity to enforce maritime law. Additionally, EUCAP has supported the Somali Attorney General’s Maritime Crimes Unit by providing training in internal procedures and investigations and launching an internship program for young lawyers. Despite the progress, Somalia continues to face challenges in maritime governance due to political instability and resource limitations, but EUCAP remains committed to addressing these issues with Somali authorities and international partners.^[76]

• European Union portal

See also

• European Union portal

• European Union–NATO relations
• European Union as an emerging superpower
• Security and defense pacts of the European Union
• European countries by military expenditure as a percentage of government expenditure
• Neutral country § European Union
• Strategic Compass for Security and Defence

Defence-related EU initiatives

• Military Mobility
• European Centre of Excellence for Countering Hybrid Threats (Hybrid CoE), an EU-supported intergovernmental think-tank

Pan-European defence organisations (intergovernmental)

• Finabel, an organisation, controlled by the army chiefs of staff of its participating nations, that promotes cooperation and interoperability between the armies.^[77]
• Organisation for Joint Armament Cooperation (OCCAR), an organisation that facilitates and manages collaborative armament programmes through their lifecycle between its participating nations.
• European Air Group (EAG), an organisation that promotes cooperation and interoperability between the air forces of its participating nations.
• European Organisation of Military Associations and Trade Unions (EUROMIL)
• European Personnel Recovery Centre (EPRC), an organisation that contributes to the development and harmonisation of policies and standards related to personnel recovery.
• European Intervention Initiative
• European Centre of Excellence for Civilian Crisis Management

Regional, integorvernmental defence organisations in Europe

• Nordic Defence Cooperation (NORDEFCO)
• Central European Defence Cooperation (CEDC)

Atlanticist intergovernmental defence organisations

• North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)
• Movement Coordination Centre Europe (MCCE), an organisation aiming to coordinate the use of airlift, sealift and land movement assets owned or leased by participating nations.

Notes

1. The responsibility of collective self-defence within the CSDP is based on Article 42.7 of TEU, which states that this responsibility does not prejudice the specific character of the security and defence policy of certain member states, referring to policies of neutrality. See Neutral country§European Union for discussion on this subject.According to the Article 42.7 "If a Member State is the victim of armed aggression on its territory, the other Member States shall have towards it an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in their power, in accordance with Article 51 of the United Nations Charter. This shall not prejudice the specific character of the security and defence policy of certain Member States." Article 42.2 furthermore specifies that NATO shall be the main forum for the implementation of collective self-defence for EU member states that are also NATO members.
2. Akin to the EU's banking union, economic and monetary union and customs union.
3. Akin to the EU's banking union, economic and monetary union and customs union.
4. Aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle
5. Aircraft carrier Cavour and aircraft carrier Giuseppe Garibaldi
6. New universal ship of Trieste has the function of aircraft carrier and amphibious assault ship.
7. San Giorgio-class amphibious transport dock
8. Spain withdrew last classic aircraft carrier Príncipe de Asturias in 2013 (currently in reserve). New universal ship of Juan Carlos I has the function of fleet carrier and amphibious assault ship.
9. Galicia-class landing platform dock
10. F-100 class
11. Santa María class

References

1. Defence Data Portal, Official 2005–2017 defence statistics from the European Defence Agency
2. Defence Data 2017–2018, Official 2018 defence statistics from the European Defence Agency
3. "Defence Data 2019-2020: Key findings and analysis" (PDF). European Defence Agency. p.3
4. "Texts adopted - Tuesday, 22 November 2016 - European Defence Union – P8_TA(2016)0435". www.europarl.europa.eu.
5. "European Commission welcomes first operational steps towards a European Defence Union" (Press release). European Commission.
6. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 25 December 2017. Retrieved 18 June 2018.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
7. "Glossary of summaries - EUR-Lex". eur-lex.europa.eu.
8. "EU to spend €1.5bn a year on joint defence". EUobserver. 7 June 2017.
9. Christopher S. Chivvis, "Birthing Athena. The Uncertain Future of ESDP" Archived 27 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Focus stratégique, Paris, Ifri, March 2008.
10. "EUFOR Tchad/RCA" Archived 14 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine consilium.europa.eu
11. Benjamin Pohl (2013). "The logic underpinning EU crisis management operations". Archived 14 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine, European Security, 22(3): 307–325, doi:10.1080/09662839.2012.726220, p. 311.
12. "EU Concept for ESDP support to Security Sector Reform" (PDF).
13. Ejdus, Filip (2 October 2017). "'Here is your mission, now own it!' The rhetoric and practice of local ownership in EU interventions". European Security. 26 (4): 461–484. doi:10.1080/09662839.2017.1333495. hdl:1983/d77fa2b0-82f5-4bc7-82f8-0d796a02c2cd.
14. EU Command and Control, p. 13, Military Staff
15. EEAS (June 2016) Shared Vision, Common Action: A Stronger Europe A Global Strategy for the European Union’s Foreign And Security Policy
16. Council of the European Union (2016) Implementation Plan on Security and Defence
17. Nováky, Niklas I. M. (2018). "The Credibility of European Union Military Operations' Deterrence Postures". International Peacekeeping. 25 (2): 191–216. doi:10.1080/13533312.2017.1370581.
18. Tim Martin (11 November 2022) European Commission launches new defense package, with military mobility and cyber focus Action Plan on Military Mobility 2.0
19. European Defence Agency: DEFENCE DATA 2006-2016
20. "USAF Report: "Most" Nuclear Weapon Sites in Europe Do Not Meet US Security Requirements » FAS Strategic Security Blog". 10 March 2013. Archived from the original on 10 March 2013.
21. Croft, Adrian (19 September 2012). "Some EU states may no longer afford air forces-general". Reuters. Retrieved 31 March 2013.
22. Todd, Daniel; Lindberg, Michael (1996). Navies and Shipbuilding Industries: The Strained Symbiosis. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 56–57. ISBN 9780275953102
23. Marinecomponent Hoofdpagina. Mil.be. Retrieved on 17 December 2011.
24. Jane's Fighting Ships 2009
25. "French Navy Ship List (defense.gouv.fr)".Navy Ship List, 22 October 2011.
26. (in German) Offizieller Internetauftritt der Marine. www.marine.de. Retrieved on 17 December 2011.
27. Πολεμικό Ναυτικό – Επίσημη Ιστοσελίδα Archived 20 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Hellenicnavy.gr. Retrieved on 17 December 2011.
28. "Πολεμικό Ναυτικό - Επίσημη Ιστοσελίδα - Αρχική". www.hellenicnavy.gr. Archived from the original on 3 February 2020. Retrieved 9 November 2019.
29. Home | Defence Forces. Military.ie. Retrieved on 17 December 2011.
30. Marina Militare. Marina.difesa.it. Retrieved on 17 December 2011.
31. (in Lithuanian) Lithuanian Armed Forces :: Structure » Navy Archived 17 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Kariuomene.kam.lt (21 January 2010). Retrieved on 17 December 2011.
32. "P61-P62 (Offshore)". Armed Forces of Malta. Archived from the original on 16 June 2020.
33. Koninklijke Marine | Ministerie van Defensie. Defensie.nl. Retrieved on 17 December 2011.
34. (in Polish) Marynarka Wojenna Archived 11 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Mw.mil.pl. Retrieved on 17 December 2011.
35. Marinha Portuguesa Archived 22 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Marinha.pt. Retrieved on 17 December 2011.
36. (in Romanian) Fortele Navale Române^{[permanent dead link‍]}. Navy.ro. Retrieved on 17 December 2011.
37. Slovensko obalo bo varovala "Kresnica" :: Prvi interaktivni multimedijski portal, MMC RTV Slovenija. Rtvslo.si. Retrieved on 17 December 2011.
38. Presentación Buques de Superficie – Ships – Armada Española. Armada.mde.es. Retrieved on 22 November 2018.
39. The Swedish Navy – Försvarsmakten Archived 18 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Forsvarsmakten.se (2 September 2008). Retrieved on 17 December 2011.
40. Ministry of Defence - Vehicle & Aircraft Holdings within the scope of the Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty: Annual: 2013 edition, gov.uk, (pp.10-13), Accessed 28 November 2014
41. "Braniteljski portal | ...Ne pitaj što domovina može učiniti za tebe, nego što ti možeš učiniti za Domovinu". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 3 August 2015.
42. "Eesti hangib Soomest haubitsaid".
43. "The Artillery Corps". www.military.ie. Archived from the original on 3 July 2015.
44. "Lithuania".
45. "The Armed Forces of the Republic of Poland". Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
46. - Flight International, Flightglobal.com, Accessed 19 September 2020
47. "RAF – A400m." Archived 30 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine RAF, MOD. Retrieved: 15 May 2010.
48. The military balance 2021. James Hackett, International Institute for Strategic Studies. Abingdon, Oxon. 2021. ISBN 978-1-000-41545-2. OCLC 1239962384.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
49. "Aeronautica Militare".
50. "Choose a language - Consilium" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 April 2017. Retrieved 10 January 2018.
51. New force behind EU foreign policy BBC News – 15 March 2007
52. "Europe in a foreign field". The Economist. 19 January 2013.
53. Value of EU 'Battlegroup' plan stressed by Annan Archived 13 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine forumoneurope.ie 15 October 2004
54. "In Defence of Europe - EPSC - European Commission". EPSC. 31 March 2016.
55. "Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) first collaborative PESCO projects" (PDF).
56. "Project outlines" (PDF).
57. "European Defence: What's in the CARDs for PESCO?" (PDF).
58. Barigazzi, Jacopo (10 December 2017). "EU unveils military pact projects". Politico. Retrieved 29 December 2017.
59. "Eurocorps' official website / History". Retrieved 23 February 2008.
60. Arcudi, Giovanni; Smith, Michael E. (2013). "The European Gendarmerie Force: A solution in search of problems?". European Security. 22: 1–20. doi:10.1080/09662839.2012.747511. S2CID 153388488.
61. "Eindhoven regelt internationale militaire luchtvaart".
62. "Claude-France Arnould Visits EATC Headquarters". Eda.europa.eu. Retrieved 19 February 2016.
63. EUROMARFOR – At Sea for Peace pamphlet^{[permanent dead link‍]}. Retrieved 11 March 2012.
64. Biscop, Sven (2003). Euro-Mediterranean security: a search for partnership. Ashgate Publishing. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-7546-3487-4.
65. EUROMARFOR Retrospective – Portuguese Command^{[permanent dead link‍]}, page 12. Retrieved 11 March 2012.
66. NATO, Berlin Plus agreement, 21 June 2006."SHAPE Information". Archived from the original on 17 August 2007. Retrieved 19 August 2007.
67. The Heritage Foundation report, 4 October 2004: "Through the CJTF mechanism, NATO member states do not have to actively participate actively in a specific mission if they do not feel their vital interests are involved, but their opting out [...] would not stop other NATO members from participating in an intervention if they so desired." Archived 5 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine
68. "About EUCAP Somalia". www.eeas.europa.eu. Retrieved 27 September 2024.
69. Décision 2012/389/PESC du Conseil du 16 juillet 2012 relative à la mission de l'Union européenne visant au renforcement des capacités maritimes régionales dans la Corne de l'Afrique (EUCAP NESTOR) (in French), 16 July 2012, retrieved 27 September 2024
70. "EUCAP NESTOR, Somali Coastguard and Maritime Police Unit Visit Operation Atalanta Flagship HNLMS Tromp | EUNAVFOR". eunavfor.eu. Retrieved 27 September 2024.
71. "EU Missions in Somalia: Successes, Challenges and Future Prospects". PubAffairs Bruxelles. Retrieved 27 September 2024.
72. Gros-Verheyde, Nicolas (16 May 2012). "EUCAP Nestor, une mission de 200 personnes aux multiples facettes". archive.wikiwix.com. Retrieved 27 September 2024.
73. "Decision - 2022/2445 - EN - EUR-Lex". eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved 27 September 2024.
74. "Déclarations officielles de politique étrangère du 06 janvier 2021". archive.wikiwix.com. Retrieved 27 September 2024.
75. "About EUCAP Somalia | EEAS". www.eeas.europa.eu. Retrieved 27 September 2024.
76. The European Union Training Mission in Somalia: An Assessment (Report). SIPRI. November 2020.
77. "Finabel information folder: "Finabel: Contributing to European Army Interoperability since 1953"" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 July 2011.

Further reading

• Book – What ambitions for European defence in 2020?, European Union Institute for Security Studies
• Book – European Security and Defence Policy: The first 10 years (1999–2009), European Union Institute for Security Studies
• Book - Smith, Michael E. (2017). 'Europe's Common Security and Defence Policy: Capacity-Building, Experiential Learning, and Institutional Change' (Cambridge University Press).
• "Guide to the ESDP" nov.2008 edition Exhaustive guide on ESDP's missions, institutions and operations, written and edited by the Permanent representation of France to the European Union.
• Dijkstra, Hylke (2013). Policy-Making in EU Security and Defense: An Institutional Perspective. European Administrative Governance Series (Hardback 240pp ed.). Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke. ISBN 978-1-137-35786-1.
• Nugent, Neill (2006). The Government and Politics of the European Union. The European Union Series (Paperback 630pp ed.). Palgrave Macmillan, New York. ISBN 9780230000025.
• Howorth, Joylon (2007). Security and Defence Policy in the European Union. The European Union Series (Paperback 315pp ed.). Palgrave Macmillan, New York. ISBN 978-0-333-63912-2.
• PhD Thesis on Civilian ESDP - EU Civilian crisis management (University of Geneva, 2008, 441 p. in French)
• Hayes, Ben (2009). "NeoConOpticon: The EU Security-Industrial Complex". Statewatch: Newsletter (Paperback, 84 pp ed.). Transnational Institute/Statewatch. ISSN 1756-851X.
• Giovanni Arcudi & Michael E. Smith (2013). The European Gendarmerie Force: a solution in search of problems?, European Security, 22(1): 1–20, DOI:10.1080/09662839.2012.747511
• Teresa Eder (2014). Welche Befugnisse hat die Europäische Gendarmerietruppe?, Der Standard, 5 Februar 2014.
• Alexander Mattelaer (2008). The Strategic Planning of EU Military Operations – The Case of EUFOR Tchad/RCA, IES Working Paper 5/2008.
• Benjamin Pohl (2013). The logic underpinning EU crisis management operations, European Security, 22(3): 307–325, DOI:10.1080/09662839.2012.726220
• "The Russo-Georgian War and Beyond: towards a European Great Power Concert", Danish Institute of International Studies.
• U.S Army Strategic Studies Institute (SSI), Operation EUFOR TCHAD/RCA and the EU's Common Security and Defense Policy. Archived 8 April 2018 at the Wayback Machine, U.S. Army War College, October 2010
• Mai'a K. Davis Cross "Security Integration in Europe: How Knowledge-based Networks are Transforming the European Union." University of Michigan Press, 2011.
• Butler, Graham (2020). "The European Defence Union and Denmark's Defence Opt-out: A Legal Appraisal" (PDF). European Foreign Affairs Review. 25 (1): 117–150. doi:10.54648/EERR2020008. S2CID 216432180.

External links

• Official website, European External Action Service
• Security and Defence, European External Action Service
• EU cooperation on security and defence, Council of the European Union
• CFSP operational instrument: A proposed CSDP evolution in the Eurocorps and ESDI in NATO