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American activist and academic (born 1946) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Barbara Smith (born November 16, 1946)[1][a] is an American lesbian feminist and socialist who has played a significant role in Black feminism in the United States.[2] Since the early 1970s, she has been active as a scholar, activist, critic, lecturer, author, and publisher of Black feminist thought. She has also taught at numerous colleges and universities for 25 years. Smith's essays, reviews, articles, short stories and literary criticism have appeared in a range of publications, including The New York Times Book Review, The Black Scholar, Ms., Gay Community News, The Guardian, The Village Voice, Conditions and The Nation. She has a twin sister, Beverly Smith, who is also a lesbian feminist activist and writer.
Barbara Smith | |
|---|---|
| |
| Born | November 16, 1946 Cleveland, Ohio, U.S. |
| Occupation | Independent scholar, writer, activist |
| Education | Mount Holyoke College (BA) University of Pittsburgh (MA) |
| Literary movement | Black feminism |
| Relatives | Beverly Smith (sister) |
Barbara Smith and her fraternal twin sister, Beverly, were born on November 16, 1946, in Cleveland, Ohio, to Hilda Beall Smith.[1] Born prematurely, both twins struggled during their first months of life, though Beverly particularly struggled after contracting pneumonia. Their mother worked as a nurse's aide and later a store clerk, so the girls’ grandmother acted as their primary caretaker during their childhood, while their mother drew an income.[1] In 1956, when Barbara and Beverly were nine, their mother died from heart complications related to childhood rheumatic fever.[3] After their mother's death, the girls continued to live in a two-family home with their grandmother, aunts, uncles, and cousins.
Although the Smith family was of relatively little means, her grandmother, aunts, and mother were all well-educated, especially for the level of education accessible to Black women in the 1940s and 1950s.[4] Her grandmother and great-aunts taught in segregated schools in the South before moving north, though her mother was the only one in her family to have received a college diploma, a Bachelor's of Science in education from Fort Valley State University (then Fort Valley State College).[5] Barbara's family were all active readers who emphasized education, inside and outside of school.
For most of her life, Barbara had little knowledge of her father, Gartrell Smith, who split with Hilda before the twins were born. According to Barbara's mother's cousin, “Aunt” Isabel, Hilda and Gartrell eloped after Hilda's parents disapproved of the match.[3] Hilda returned to Cleveland pregnant after her split with Gartrell. Barbara never met her father or saw pictures of him. Little is known of him other than that he was a member of the military during World War II and that Hilda and Gartrell met in Georgia, where Hilda attended college.
Although Barbara and her sister grew up in the northern United States, her family retained its southern roots and traditions from rural Georgia. Her mother's family was one of the millions of African-American families that participated in the Great Migration in the first half of the 20th century to escape the South's oppressive racial caste system and improve their economic circumstances. Barbara describes her identity as that of a southern woman and credits her family's experience with intense racial trauma in Georgia as a catalyst for her activism.[6] At the same time, she does not exonerate the north from intense racial discrimination, documenting several formative incidents of anti-Blackness that she and her sister experienced. During one such incident, she and her sister brought homemade cookies to their summer French class, which was taught by an unabashedly racist woman. None of the white children in the class ate any of the cookies.[7] Despite obvious racial discrimination, however, both Barbara and Beverly excelled academically.
Barbara Smith and her sister began their elementary education at Bolton Elementary School and moved to Robert Fulton Elementary School during 1st grade.[8] Smith partially credits her early academic success to the high quality of the public schools she attended. Although she and her sister were selected for a special school for the academically talented in fourth grade, their family decided not to switch the girls' school so soon after their mother's death.[9] Barbara and Beverly attended Alexander Hamilton Jr. High School and later John Adams High School.
In high school, Smith excelled in honors and AP classes and scored very high on the PSAT. Her grades and test scores gained her entrance to Mount Holyoke College in 1965, but, fatigued by racial animosity at the college, she transferred to the New School for Social Research in New York City, where she studied social sciences for a year. She returned to Mount Holyoke for her senior year and graduated in 1969.[10]
After graduating from Mount Holyoke College in 1969, Smith pursued an MA in literature at the University of Pittsburgh and graduated in 1971. In Pittsburgh she began to become active in the Women's movement and the Gay Liberation movement.[11]
In 1981, Smith completed all but the dissertation for her doctoral studies at the University of Connecticut.[12] By that time, she was a well-established, well-known activist for Black, feminist, and gay issues.
In 2015, the University at Albany awarded Smith an honorary doctorate degree.[13]
Because she grew up in a deeply segregated society, Smith developed a political consciousness from a young age.[14] As high school students, she and her sister participated in civil rights protests that centered on school desegregation. During this time, Smith was a volunteer for the Cleveland chapter of the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE). She describes the murder of Bruce Klunder, an activist and minister, as a catalytic force behind her involvement with the Cleveland movement. She attended several speeches by Martin Luther King Jr., and met civil rights activist Fannie Lou Hamer.[15]
In 1965, Smith matriculated at Mount Holyoke College, where she was one of the few Black students. She quickly became involved with the Civil Actions Group, which, among other issues, was involved in organizing against the Vietnam War.[16] Although Mount Holyoke did not have a Students for Democratic Society (SDS) chapter on campus, Smith and other Mount Holyoke students admired and imitated the group's efforts. During her year at the New School for Social Research, Smith traveled to Chicago and participated in the protests accompanying the Democratic National Convention.[15]
After graduating from Mount Holyoke, Smith took a break from front-line activism, where she felt constrained by her identity as a woman in the Black nationalist movement.[17] For a time, she reasoned that she could help advance racial justice by working within the academy. But after attending a meeting of the National Black Feminist Organization (NBFO), she reentered the sphere of activism and began collaborating with many notable women of color.
Smith settled in Boston after receiving an MA in literature from the University of Pittsburgh. Her sister Beverly's staff position at Ms. Magazine allowed Beverly to obtain critical contacts,[18] and through the publication, Barbara met Margaret Sloan, a founder of the NBFO. Intrigued by the call for attendance to the NBFO's Eastern Regional Conference in 1974, Smith caucused with women from the Boston area and made contacts in order to establish a Boston NBFO chapter.[19]
In 1975, with Beverly and Demita Frazier, a Chicago activist, Smith established a Boston NBFO chapter. Due to lack of direction from the national organization, the Boston chapter had an independent nature, deciding as a group to focus on consciousness-raising and grassroots organizing that assisted Boston's poor and working classes.[19]
Frustrated by the lack of communication from the national organization, but also realizing that the Boston chapter's politics were significantly more radical than the NBFO's, the group decided to split off entirely. Named after a successful military operation Harriet Tubman led during the Civil War at a river in South Carolina, the Combahee River Collective moved quickly to write a manifesto.[19] The Combahee River Collective Statement[20] outlines the group's objectives, but also identifies it as a class-conscious, sexuality-affirming Black feminist organization. Recognizing lesbianism as a legitimate identity reinforced the debate within Black feminism and the larger women's movement.
As a socialist Black feminist organization, the collective emphasized the intersections of racial, gender, heterosexist, and class oppression in the lives of African Americans and other women of color. Like other Black feminist organizations at the time, Combahee articulated "many of the concerns specific to Black women, from anger with Black men for dating and marrying white women, to internal conflict over skin color, hair texture, and facial features, to the differences between the mobility of white and Black women...also attacking the myth of Black matriarch and stereotypical portrayals of Black women in popular culture."[21] The collective also worked on issues such as "reproductive rights, rape, prison reform, sterilization abuse, violence against women, health care, and racism within the white women's movement."[22] It was deliberately structured to avoid hierarchy and give members a sense of equality; Smith cited this structure as essential to ensuring that Black feminism survived "as a radical movement."[23] Combahee members organized retreats to discuss issues within the Statement, ways to incorporate Black feminism into Black women's consciousness, and pressing issues in their own communities.[24] But the organization lost momentum as conversations about lesbianism and educational advancement alienated some members. As a result of leadership conflict and interpersonal disputes, Combahee's membership declined. The last meeting was in February 1980.[25]
An enthusiast of American literature and writing, Smith pursued English study throughout her education. After being enthralled by James Baldwin's novel Go Tell It on the Mountain she resolved to become an expatriate writer, but due to her interest in social movements in the 1960s, she resigned herself to literature studies at home.[26] She pursued graduate study in literature in an attempt to seek out female writers of color, but came to terms with the fact that the American literary canon did not include Black women. After reading in a Ms. article that Alice Walker would be teaching a course on African-American women writers, Smith enrolled and vowed to teach female writers of color whenever she taught. She began doing so at Emerson College in 1973.[26]
Dismayed that works available by writers of color prominently featured the experiences of men, Smith founded Kitchen Table: Women of Color Press on her friend Audre Lorde's suggestion.[27] Established in 1980 in Boston, Kitchen Table relocated to New York in 1981. In collaboration with Lorde, Cherríe Moraga, Hattie Gossett, Susan L. Yung, June Jordan, and Gloria Anzaldúa,[28] Smith published several pamphlets and books that came to be embraced in ethnic studies, women's studies, queer studies, and Black studies programs, such as Home Girls: A Black Feminist Anthology, This Bridge Called My Back, Cuentos: Stories by Latinas, and I Am Your Sister: Black Women Organizing Across Sexualities. Smith has said that Kitchen Table's legacy lies in contemporary publishing, as women of color writers such as Walker and Toni Morrison have entered the American literary canon, as well as influencing feminist studies to incorporate intersectionality as a lens of inquiry.[26]
Smith continued to write and produced a collection of her essays, articles, and reviews after her involvement in Kitchen Table ended. Her article "Toward a Black Feminist Criticism" (1977), first published in Conditions magazine, is cited as "the first explicit statement of black feminist criticism",[29] as "pivotal",[30] and as "groundbreaking",[31] Smith has edited three major collections about Black women: Conditions 5: The Black Women's Issue (1979, with Lorraine Bethel); All the Women Are White, All the Blacks Are Men, But Some of Us Are Brave: Black Women's Studies (1982, with Gloria T. Hull and Patricia Bell-Scott); and Home Girls: A Black Feminist Anthology (first edition, Kitchen Table: Women of Color Press, 1983; second edition, Rutgers University Press, 2000). Smith has since collected her various writings in the anthology The Truth That Never Hurts: Writings on Race, Gender, and Freedom (1998).
Barbara Smith's has great contributions in feminist movement, particularly in expanding the boundaries of feminist theory to include discussions on race, sexuality, and class. Smith was the first scholar to coin the term "identity politics", which she used to describe how intersecting aspects of identity, such as race, gender, and sexuality, create unique forms of oppression for women of color, especially Black lesbian women.[32] She argued that feminist movements must recognize the complex identities of marginalized women to be truly inclusive. Smith was critical of second-wave feminism for often neglecting and sometimes intentionally excluding Black women's experiences. She claimed that if feminism did not include all women it was not feminism so much as "female self-aggrandizement".[33] Smith’s conception of identity politics laid the groundwork for later scholars, including Kimberlé Crenshaw, who developed the concept of "intersectionality," a term that has gained significant popularity and recognition in the last 20 years.[34]
In conjunction with her work on identity politics, Smith created Black feminist criticism. In her groundbreaking piece "Toward a Black Feminist Criticism," Smith identifies the rich literary tradition of Afro-descended women in America, asserting that Black female authors have been ignored in literary history. When they have not been overtly ignored, they have been devalued and stripped of political and feminist meaning.[35] Because there was no political movement for Black feminism, Black women's work was relegated to African-American literature and stripped of an analysis of sex or gender, meaning that all the works that defined "feminism" at that time related it only to white women's experience. Along with providing a theoretical framework by which to evaluate literature by Black women, Smith was also perhaps the most influential force in popularizing authors like Alice Walker, Toni Morrison, Amy Tan, and other female authors of color through her "Kitchen Table: Women of Color Press".[36]
Barbara Smith’s influence extended into the development of multiracial feminism, a framework that reshaped second-wave feminism to address the needs of women from diverse racial and class backgrounds. As Becky Thompson outlines in "Multiracial Feminism: Recasting the Chronology of Second Wave Feminism," Smith criticized mainstream feminism’s narrow focus on white, middle-class issues, which often overlooked the layered oppressions experienced by women of color and economically marginalized women.[37] Smith introduced the concept of “the simultaneity of oppressions,” urging feminists to recognize how race, class, and gender interact to create unique challenges.
Thompson argues that Smith was among the key theorists who expanded feminist discourse by emphasizing the critical role of class in understanding gender oppression. Smith’s work highlighted how economic conditions intersected with race and gender to shape women’s lived experiences, particularly those of Black women and other women of color. This analysis contributed to a shift in feminist scholarship during the 1970s and 1980s, encouraging the movement to consider how economic marginalization influenced women’s experiences of gender-based discrimination. By incorporating class analysis as a fundamental component of Black feminist thought, Smith helped create frameworks that more accurately reflected the experiences of working-class women and women of color, pushing the feminist movement toward a more inclusive and comprehensive approach to understanding oppression.
As a lesbian, Smith's intersectional approach to feminism extended beyond race and gender into sexuality. She was the first scholar to identify a Black lesbian feminist body of literature, although she separated lesbianism from a political identity.[38] During the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, Smith was active in LGBT rights movements, but became disillusioned by the movement's lack of complexity, which she felt revolved around single issues like gay marriage and "celebrity culture." Mainstream LGBT movements centered the experience of gay white people while ignoring the compounded oppression faced by gay people of color. Since then, Smith has preferred multi-issue LGBT activism that addresses the oppression faced those who are most marginalized in society.[39]
Barbara Smith extended her feminist activism to global issues, particularly the impact of nuclear warfare on marginalized communities. In her 1983 essay, "Fractious, Kicking, Messy, Free: Feminist Writers Confront the Nuclear Abyss," Smith argued that nuclear conflict would disproportionately affect vulnerable groups, including women, due to systemic inequalities.[40] She advocated for a feminist response that addressed nuclear threat through an intersectional perspective, linking it to other forms of oppression like racism, economic disparity, and gender-based violence.
Smith’s approach emphasized collective action across social justice movements, viewing feminist critique as a tool to confront global systems of power. She encouraged feminist writers to adopt a “fractious” and “messy” style that embraced complexity, underscoring her commitment to an authentic and resilient feminist voice in the face of global threats.
Continuing her work as a community organizer, Smith was elected to the Albany, New York Common Council (city council) in 2005, representing Ward 4, and reelected in 2009. She also worked during this period with David Kaczynski at New Yorkers for Alternatives to the Death Penalty on innovative solutions to violent crime.[41] During her two terms on the Albany Common Council, Smith was active on issues of youth development, violence prevention, and educational opportunities for poor, minority and underserved persons.[42]
As someone has committed to a "lifetime of work and struggle",[62] Smith does not have access to traditional retirement fund. Following in the collective care of a Black feminist ethos, there is a Caring Circle Archived November 1, 2020, at the Wayback Machine that supports Smith and her work. Contributions can be made monthly.
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