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NASA-led lunar exploration program From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Artemis program is a Moon exploration program led by the United States' National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), formally established in 2017 via Space Policy Directive 1. It is intended to reestablish a human presence on the Moon for the first time since the Apollo 17 mission in 1972. The program's stated long-term goal is to establish a permanent base on the Moon to facilitate human missions to Mars.
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| Program overview | |
|---|---|
| Country | United States |
| Organization | NASA and partners: ESA, JAXA, DLR, ASI, ISA, MBRSC and CSA |
| Purpose | Sustainable crewed lunar exploration |
| Status | Ongoing |
| Program history | |
| Cost | US$93+ billion (2012–2025), $53 billion in 2021-2025[1] |
| Duration | 2017–present[2] |
| First flight | Artemis I (16 November 2022, 06:47:44 UTC)[3][4] |
| First crewed flight | Artemis II (NET September 2025)[5] |
| Launch site(s) | |
| Vehicle information | |
| Crewed vehicle(s) | |
| Crew capacity | 4[6] |
| Launch vehicle(s) |
|
Two principal elements of the Artemis program are derived from the now-cancelled Constellation program: the Orion spacecraft and the Space Launch System (SLS) (as a reincarnation of Ares V). Other elements of the program, such as the Lunar Gateway space station and the Human Landing System, are in development by government space agencies and private spaceflight companies, collaborations bound by the Artemis Accords and governmental contracts.
The Space Launch System, Orion spacecraft and the Human Landing System form the main spaceflight infrastructure for Artemis, and the Lunar Gateway plays a supporting role in human habitation. Supporting infrastructures for Artemis include the Commercial Lunar Payload Services, development of ground infrastructures, Artemis Base Camp on the Moon, Moon rovers, and spacesuits. Some aspects of the program have been criticized, such as the use of a near-rectilinear halo orbit and the program's sustainability.
Orion's first launch on the Space Launch System was originally set in 2016, but faced numerous delays; it launched on 16 November 2022 as the Artemis I mission, with robots and mannequins aboard. According to plan, the crewed Artemis II launch is expected to take place in late 2025, the Artemis III crewed lunar landing is scheduled for late 2026, the Artemis IV docking with the Lunar Gateway is planned for late 2028, the Artemis V docking with the European Space Agency's ESPRIT, Canada's Canadarm3, and NASA's Lunar Terrain Vehicle is planned for early 2030, and the Artemis VI docking which is expected to integrate the Crew and Science Airlock with the Lunar Gateway station is planned for early 2031. After Artemis VI, NASA plans yearly landings on the Moon from then on. However, the NASA Inspector General has called the schedules unrealistic.
The Artemis program is organized around a series of SLS missions. These space missions will increase in complexity and are scheduled to occur at intervals of a year or more. NASA and its partners have planned Artemis I through Artemis V missions; later Artemis missions have also been proposed. Each SLS mission centers on the launch of an SLS launch vehicle carrying an Orion spacecraft. Missions after Artemis II will depend on support missions launched by other organizations and spacecraft for support functions.
Artemis I (2022) was the successful uncrewed test of the SLS and Orion, and was the first test flight for both craft.[lower-roman 1] The Artemis I mission placed Orion into a lunar orbit and then returned to Earth. The SLS Block 1 design uses the Interim Cryogenic Propulsion Stage (ICPS) second stage, which performs the trans-lunar injection burn to send Orion to lunar space. For Artemis I, Orion braked into a polar distant retrograde lunar orbit and remained for about six days before boosting back toward Earth. The Orion capsule separated from its service module, re-entered the atmosphere for aerobraking, and splashed down under parachutes.[10]
Artemis II (2025) is planned to be the first crewed test flight of SLS and the Orion spacecraft.[5] The four crew members will perform extensive testing in Earth orbit, and Orion will then be boosted into a free-return trajectory around the Moon, which will return Orion back to Earth for re-entry and splashdown. Launch is scheduled for no earlier than September 2025.[5]
Artemis III (2026) is planned to be the first American crewed lunar landing since Apollo 17 in December 1972.[5] The mission depends on a support mission to place a Starship Human Landing System (HLS) in a near-rectilinear halo orbit (NRHO) of the Moon prior to the launch of SLS/Orion. After Starship HLS reaches NRHO, SLS/Orion will send the Orion spacecraft with a crew of four to rendezvous and dock with HLS.[lower-roman 2] Two astronauts will transfer to HLS, which will descend to the lunar surface and spend about 6.5 days on the surface.[11] The astronauts will perform at least two Extravehicular Activities (EVAs) on the surface before the HLS ascends to return them to a rendezvous with Orion. Orion will return the four astronauts to Earth. Launch is scheduled for no earlier than September 2026.[5]
Artemis IV (2028) is planned to be the second crewed lunar landing mission. Orion and an upgraded Starship HLS will dock with the Lunar Gateway station in NRHO prior to the landing. A prior support mission will deliver the first two Lunar Gateway modules to NRHO. The extra power of this mission's SLS Block 1B will allow it to deliver the I-HAB Gateway module for connection to the Lunar Gateway. Launch is scheduled for no earlier than September 2028.[12][13]
Artemis V (2030) is planned to be the third crewed lunar landing, which will deliver four astronauts to the Lunar Gateway station. The mission will deliver the European Space Agency's ESPRIT refueling and communications module and Canadarm3, a Canadian-built robotic arm system for the Gateway. Also delivered will be NASA's Lunar Terrain Vehicle. Launch is scheduled for no earlier than March 2030.[12][14] The mission will also be the first to use Blue Origin's Blue Moon lander to take astronauts to the Moon's surface.
Artemis VI (2031) is planned to be the fourth crewed lunar landing, which will integrate the Crew and Science Airlock with the Gateway Space Station.[15] Launch is scheduled for no earlier than March 2031.[14] As of 2024, the Airlock module is under construction.[16]
Support missions include robotic landers, delivery of Gateway modules, Gateway logistics, delivery of the HLS, and delivery of elements of the Moon base. Most of these missions are executed under NASA contracts to commercial providers.
Under the Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) program, several robotic landers will deliver scientific instruments and robotic rovers to the lunar surface after Artemis I. Additional CLPS missions are planned throughout the Artemis program to deliver payloads to the Moon base. These include habitat modules and rovers in support of crewed missions.
A Human Landing System (HLS) is a spacecraft that can convey crew members from NRHO to the lunar surface, support them on the surface, and return them to NRHO. Each crewed landing needs one HLS, although some or all of the spacecraft may be reusable. Each HLS must be launched from Earth and delivered to NRHO in one or more launches. The initial commercial contract was awarded to SpaceX for two Starship HLS missions, one uncrewed and one crewed as part of Artemis III. These two missions each require one HLS launch and multiple fueling launches, all on SpaceX Starship launchers. NASA later exercised an option under the initial contract to commission an upgraded Starship HLS for Artemis IV and a separate contract to Blue Origin to develop a third crewed lunar lander, which will make its first crewed flight as part of the Artemis V mission.
The first two Gateway modules (PPE and HALO) will be delivered to NRHO in a single launch using a Falcon Heavy launcher. Originally planned to be available prior to Artemis III, as of 2021 it is planned for availability before Artemis IV.
The Gateway will be resupplied and supported by launches of Dragon XL spacecraft launched by Falcon Heavy. Each Dragon XL will remain attached to Gateway for up to six months. The Dragon XLs will not return to Earth, but will be disposed of, probably by deliberate crashes on the lunar surface.
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The Artemis program incorporates several major components of previously cancelled NASA programs and missions, including the Constellation program and the Asteroid Redirect Mission. Originally legislated by the NASA Authorization Act of 2005, Constellation included the development of Ares I, Ares V, and the Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle. The program ran from the early 2000s until 2010.[17]
In May 2009, President Barack Obama established the Augustine Committee to take into account several objectives including support for the International Space Station, development of missions beyond low Earth orbit (including the Moon, Mars, and near-Earth objects), and use of the commercial space industry within defined budget limits.[18] The committee concluded that the Constellation program was massively underfunded and that a 2020 Moon landing was impossible. Constellation was subsequently put on hold.[19]
On 15 April 2010, President Obama spoke at the Kennedy Space Center, announcing the administration's plans for NASA and cancelling the non-Orion elements of Constellation on the premise that the program had become nonviable.[20] He instead proposed US$6 billion in additional funding and called for development of a new heavy-lift rocket program to be ready for construction by 2015 with crewed missions to Mars orbit by the mid-2030s.[21]
On 11 October 2010, President Obama signed into law the NASA Authorization Act of 2010, which included requirements for the immediate development of the Space Launch System as a follow-on launch vehicle to the Space Shuttle, and continued development of a Crew Exploration Vehicle to be capable of supporting missions beyond low Earth orbit starting in 2016, while making use of the workforce, assets, and capabilities of the Space Shuttle program, Constellation program, and other NASA programs. The law also invested in space technologies and robotics capabilities tied to the overall space exploration framework, ensured continued support for Commercial Orbital Transportation Services, Commercial Resupply Services, and expanded the Commercial Crew Development program.[22]
On 30 June 2017, President Donald Trump signed an executive order to re-establish the National Space Council, chaired by Vice-President Mike Pence. The Trump administration's first budget request kept Obama-era human spaceflight programs in place: Commercial Resupply Services, Commercial Crew Development, the Space Launch System, and the Orion spacecraft for deep space missions, while reducing Earth science research and calling for the elimination of NASA's education office.[23]
On 11 December 2017, President Trump signed Space Policy Directive 1, a change in national space policy that provides for a U.S.-led, integrated program with private sector partners for a human return to the Moon, followed by missions to Mars and beyond. The policy calls for the NASA administrator to "lead an innovative and sustainable program of exploration with commercial and international partners to enable human expansion across the Solar System and to bring back to Earth new knowledge and opportunities". The effort intends to more effectively organize government, private industry, and international efforts toward returning humans to the Moon and laying the foundation of eventual human exploration of Mars.[2]
Space Policy Directive 1 authorized the lunar-focused campaign. The campaign, later named Artemis, draws upon legacy US spacecraft programs, including the Orion space capsule, the Lunar Gateway space station, and Commercial Lunar Payload Services, and creates entirely new programs such as the Human Landing System. The in-development Space Launch System is expected to serve as the primary launch vehicle for Orion, while commercial launch vehicles will launch various other elements of the program.[24]
On 26 March 2019, Vice President Mike Pence announced that NASA's Moon landing goal would be accelerated by four years with a planned landing in 2024.[25] On 14 May 2019, NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine announced that the new program would be named Artemis, after the goddess of the Moon in Greek mythology who is the twin sister of Apollo.[24][26] Despite the immediate new goals, Mars missions by the 2030s were still intended as of May 2019[update].[2]
In mid-2019, NASA requested US$1.6 billion in additional funding for Artemis for fiscal year 2020,[27] while the Senate Appropriations Committee requested from NASA a five-year budget profile[28] which is needed for evaluation and approval by Congress.[29][30]
In February 2020, the White House requested a funding increase of 12% to cover the Artemis program as part of its fiscal year 2021 budget. The total budget would have been US$25.2 billion per year with US$3.7 billion dedicated toward a Human Landing System. NASA Chief Financial Officer Jeff DeWit said he thought the agency has "a very good shot" to get this budget through Congress despite Democratic concerns around the program.[31] However, in July 2020 the House Appropriations Committee rejected the White House's requested funding increase.[32] The bill proposed in the House dedicated only US$700 million toward the Human Landing System, 81% (US$3 billion) short of the requested amount.[33]
In April 2020, NASA awarded funding to Blue Origin, Dynetics, and SpaceX for 10-month-long preliminary design studies for the HLS.[34][35][36]
Throughout February 2021, Acting Administrator of NASA Steve Jurczyk reiterated those budget concerns when asked about the project's schedule,[37][38] clarifying that "The 2024 lunar landing goal may no longer be a realistic target [...]".[39]
On 4 February 2021, the Biden administration endorsed the Artemis program.[40] More specifically, White House Press Secretary Jen Psaki expressed the Biden administration's "support [for] this effort and endeavor".[41][42][43]
On 16 April 2021, NASA contracted SpaceX to develop, manufacture, and fly two lunar landing flights with the Starship HLS lunar lander.[44] Blue Origin and Dynetics protested the award to the Government Accountability Office (GAO) on 26 April.[45][46] After the GAO rejected the protests,[47] Blue Origin sued NASA over the award,[48][49] and NASA agreed to stop work on the contract until 1 November 2021 as the lawsuit proceeded. The judge dismissed the suit on 4 November 2021 and NASA resumed work with SpaceX.[50]
On 25 September 2021, NASA released its first digital, interactive graphic novel in celebration of National Comic Book Day. "First Woman: NASA's Promise for Humanity" is the fictional story of Callie Rodriguez, the first woman to explore the Moon.[51]
On 15 November 2021, an audit of NASA's Office of Inspector General estimated the true cost of the Artemis program at about $93 billion until 2025.[1]
In addition to the initial SpaceX contract, NASA awarded two rounds of separate contracts in May 2019[52] and September 2021,[53] on aspects of the HLS to encourage alternative designs, separately from the initial HLS development effort. It announced in March 2022 that it was developing new sustainability rules and pursuing both a Starship HLS upgrade (an option under the initial SpaceX contract) and new competing alternative designs. These came after criticism from members of Congress over lack of redundancy and competition, and led NASA to ask for additional support.[54][55]
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Artemis I was originally scheduled for late 2016, and as delays accrued, eventually for late 2021, but the launch date was then pushed back to 29 August 2022.[56] Various delays related to final infrastructure repairs and weather pushed the launch date further out.[57][58][59][60][61][62][63]
In October 2022, NASA launch managers decided on a new launch date in November, which were again slightly delayed due to preparation and weather.[64][65][4] On 16 November at 01:47:44 EST (06:47:44 UTC), Artemis I successfully launched from the Kennedy Space Center.[66]
Artemis I was completed at 09:40 PST (17:40 UTC) on 11 December, when the Orion spacecraft splashed down in the Pacific Ocean, west of Baja California, after a record-breaking mission, which saw Artemis travel more than 1.4 million miles (2.3 million kilometers) on a path around the Moon before returning safely to Earth. The splashdown occurred 50 years to the day since NASA's Apollo 17 Moon landing, the last human crewed mission to touch down on the lunar surface.[67]
Artemis II is scheduled to launch in September 2025 as a crewed lunar flyby. The European Service Module for the mission was completed and handed over to NASA in 2023.[68] Testing is underway on the Orion module for Artemis II. In April 2024, Lockheed was on track to hand over the Orion module by September after testing was complete.[69][70][71][72] An OIG report released on May 1 reported the mission was still on track, provided corrective actions on the Orion heat shield were made.[73] The Artemis II crew planned to conduct a series of trainings and simulations prior to launch, the first of which occurred in May.[74] The SLS core stage for the mission was delivered to Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in July.[75][76] Notably, the SLS core stage for Artemis II was the last to be fully built at the Michoud Assembly Facility: future missions starting with Artemis III will have the core stage partly built after arriving at KSC, managed by Exploration Ground Systems, which was deemed to be more efficient by program officials.[77] In July, the Orion spacecraft was moved from the testing cell to the altitude chamber inside the Neil Armstrong Operations and Checkout Building at KSC.[78]
| Position | Astronaut | |
|---|---|---|
| Commander |  Reid Wiseman, NASASecond spaceflight | |
| Pilot | Victor Glover, NASA Second spaceflight | |
| Payload Specialist | Christina Koch, NASA Second spaceflight | |
| Mission Specialist |  Jeremy Hansen, CSAFirst spaceflight | |
Artemis II is to be crewed by four astronauts: Commander Reid Wiseman, Pilot Victor J. Glover, Payload Specialist Christina Koch, and Mission Specialist Jeremy Hansen.[79] Jenni Sidey-Gibbons is Hansen's backup; she will join the mission if Hansen is unable to.[80][81]
Glover, Koch, and Hansen are planned to be the first person of color, woman, and non-US citizen to go beyond low Earth orbit, respectively.[79] Hansen and Sidey-Gibbons are Canadian and have been assigned by the Canadian Space Agency;[79] a 2020 treaty between the United States and Canada led to their involvement.[82]
Artemis III is expected to launch in September 2026 as the first crewed landing on the Moon since Apollo 17. In February 2024, NASA completed full qualification testing of the docking systems on Starship HLS.[83] Also in February, the bulk of the manufacturing for the core stage of the SLS to be used in the mission was completed.[84] In April 2024, NASA announced the successful completion of Starship’s first internal propellant transfer demonstration. The Starship’s tanker variant ability to act as an orbital propellant depot to Starship HLS is a key capability necessary to complete the Artemis III mission. A ship-to-ship propellant transfer demonstration to further prove out the capability is expected in 2025.[85] The European Service Module for the mission was reported on track to be handed over to NASA in summer 2024.[86] The first integrated test for the mission, which included the next generation space suits developed by Axiom Space, and the airlock module of Starship HLS was conducted in June 2024.[87] The NASA Inspector General has called the development schedule for Artemis III unrealistic and estimated that the Moon landing could be pushed to as late as 2028, saying that NASA officials had raised the possibility of using Artemis III to complete an additional fly-by of the Moon rather than a lunar landing mission.[88]
In March 2024, NASA announced the scientific instruments to be included on the mission were a compact, autonomous seismometer suite called the Lunar Environment Monitoring Station, or LEMS. LEMS will characterize the regional structure of the Moon's crust and mantle to inform the development of lunar formation and evolution models. Another instrument is Lunar Effects on Agricultural Flora, a.k.a. LEAF, which will investigate the impact of the lunar surface environment on space crops. The third instrument is the Lunar Dielectric Analyzer, or LDA, an internationally contributed payload that will measure the regolith's ability to propagate an electric field.[89]
Artemis IV is expected to launch in September 2028. Prior to the launch of the mission, a Falcon Heavy is planned to launch the first two Lunar Gateway elements: the Power and Propulsion Element and Habitation and Logistics Outpost, now scheduled for 2027. Artemis IV will then be responsible for launching with a crew with the International Habitation Module (I-Hab) and adding the module to the Gateway. SLS Block 1B manufacture began in March 2024.[90] The I-Hab module construction is underway as of April 2024.[91] In May 2024, it was reported NASA made significant progress towards completion of Mobile Launcher 2 (ML-2), the launch platform that will be used by the larger SLS Block 1B.[92] However, in August 2024, the NASA Inspector General estimated that the launch platform could end up costing the agency $2.5 billion, more than six times its original value and may not be ready to support a launch until 2029, making the current launch schedule unrealistic.[93]
NASA has highlighted five key points for the mission (in chronological order):
Artemis V is expected to launch in March 2030. The mission will launch four astronauts on a Space Launch System rocket and an Orion spacecraft to the Lunar Gateway and will be the third lunar landing of the Artemis program. In addition, Artemis V will deliver two new elements to the Gateway Space Station.[95] After docking to the Gateway, two astronauts will board the Blue Moon lunar lander and fly it to the Lunar south pole to land near the Lunar Terrain Vehicle (LTV). This will be the first lunar landing since Apollo 17 to use an unpressurized lunar rover.[96]
NASA has highlighted five key points for the mission (in chronological order):
Artemis VI is expected to launch in March 2031.[14] According to NASA, the primary objectives of this mission would be to integrate the Crew and Science Airlock Module with Gateway and complete the fourth crewed lunar surface expedition of the Artemis missions.[94] As of 2024, the Airlock module is under construction by Mohammed bin Rashid Space Centre.[16]
NASA has highlighted five key points for the mission (in chronological order):
Implementation of the Artemis program will require additional programs, projects, and commercial launchers to support the construction of the Lunar Gateway, launch resupply missions to the station, and deploy numerous robotic spacecraft and instruments to the lunar surface.[97] Several precursor robotic missions are being coordinated through the Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) program, which is dedicated to scouting and characterization of lunar resources as well as testing principles for in-situ resource utilization (ISRU).[97][98]
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In March 2018, NASA established the Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) program with the aim of sending small robotic landers and rovers mostly to the lunar south pole region as a precursor to and in support of crewed missions.[98][99][100] The main goals include scouting of lunar resources, ISRU feasibility testing, and lunar science.[101] NASA is awarding commercial providers indefinite delivery/indefinite quantity contracts to develop and fly lunar landers with scientific payloads.[102] The first phase considered proposals capable of delivering at least 10 kg (22 lb) of payload by the end of 2021.[102] Proposals for mid-sized landers capable of delivering between 500 kg (1,100 lb) and 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) of cargo were planned to also be considered for launch beyond 2021.[103]
In November 2018, NASA announced the first nine companies that were qualified to bid on the CLPS transportation service contracts (see list below).[104] On 31 May 2019, three of those were awarded lander contracts: Astrobotic Technology, Intuitive Machines, and OrbitBeyond.[105] On 29 July 2019, NASA announced that it had granted OrbitBeyond's request to be released from obligations under the contract citing "internal corporate challenges".[106]
The first twelve payloads and experiments from NASA centers were announced on 21 February 2019.[107] On 1 July 2019, NASA announced the selection of twelve additional payloads, provided by universities and industry. Seven of these are scientific investigations while five are technology demonstrations.[108]
The Lunar Surface Instrument and Technology Payloads (LSITP) program was soliciting payloads in 2019 that do not require significant additional development. They will include technology demonstrators to advance lunar science or the commercial development of the Moon.[109][110]
In November 2019, NASA added five contractors to the group of companies who are eligible to bid to send large payloads to the surface of the Moon under the CLPS program: Blue Origin, Ceres Robotics, Sierra Nevada Corporation, SpaceX, and Tyvak Nano-Satellite Systems.[111][112]
In April 2020, NASA selected Masten Space Systems for a follow-on CLPS delivery of cargo to the Moon in 2022.[113][114] On 23 June 2021, Masten Space Systems announced it was delayed until November 2023. Dave Masten, the founder and chief technology officer, blamed the delay on the COVID pandemic and industry-wide supply chain issues.[115]
In February 2021, NASA selected Firefly Aerospace for a CLPS launch to Mare Crisium in mid-2023.[116][117]
| Qualification date | Company | Proposed services | Contract award | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Date | amount US$ millions | |||
| 29 November 2018 |
Astrobotic Technology | Peregrine lander | 31 May 2019 | 79.5[105] |
| Deep Space Systems | Rover; design and development services | [104] | ||
| Draper Laboratory | Series 2 lander | 21 July 2022 | 73[118] | |
| Firefly Aerospace | Blue Ghost lander | 4 February 2021 | 93.3[116] | |
| Intuitive Machines | Nova-C lander | 31 May 2019 | 77[105] | |
| Lockheed Martin Space | McCandless Lunar Lander | [104] | ||
| Masten Space Systems | XL-1 lander | 8 April 2020 | 75.9[113][104] | |
| Moon Express | MX-1, MX-2, MX-5, MX-9 landers; sample return. | [104] | ||
| OrbitBeyond | Z-01 and Z-02 landers | 31 May 2019 | 97 [105][lower-alpha 1] | |
| 18 November 2019 |
Blue Origin | Blue Moon lander | [112] | |
| Ceres Robotics | [112] | |||
| Sierra Nevada Corporation | [112] | |||
| SpaceX | Starship cargo lander | [112] | ||
| Tyvak Nano-Satellite Systems | [112] | |||
| Name | Country | Location | Program element | Services performed |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Toyota |  Japan |
Toyota City | Crewed lunar rover | Lunar Cruiser[120] |
| ArianeGroup |  France |
Gironde | Orion | Propulsion system components[121] |
| ESAB |  Sweden |
Laxå Municipality | Space Launch System | Fuel tank structures[122] |
| MT Aerospace |  Germany |
Augsburg | Space Launch System | Cryogenic core stage dome core panels[123] |
| Schaeffler Aerospace Germany GmbH & Co. KG | Germany |
Schweinfurt | Space Launch System | Cronidur 30 in SLS propulsion systems, components for Orion spacecraft[124] |
| Magna Steyr |  Austria |
Graz | Space Launch System | Pressurization lines for the SLS core stage[125] |
| Airbus | Germany |
Bremen | Orion | Orion European Service Module[126] |
| 7 Sisters Consortium (includes Fleet Space Technologies,[127] OZ Minerals, University of Adelaide,[128] University of New South Wales, and Unearthed) |  Australia |
Adelaide, Perth, Sydney | Lunar exploration support | Companion program to Artemis to provide nanosatellite solutions and exploration support for crewed Artemis missions.[129] |
| MDA | Canada |
Brampton, Ontario | Lunar Gateway | Canadarm 3[130] |
| Ispace | Japan |
Tokyo | Lunar in situ resource utilization | Hakuto-R lunar regolith transfer[131] |
| Ispace Europe |  Luxembourg |
Luxembourg City | Lunar in situ resource utilization | Lunar regolith transfer[132] |
On 5 May 2020, Reuters reported that the Trump administration was drafting a new international agreement outlining the laws for mining on the Moon.[133] NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine officially announced the Artemis Accords on 15 May 2020. It consists of a series of multilateral agreements between the governments of participating nations in the Artemis program "grounded in the Outer Space Treaty of 1967".[134][135] The Artemis Accords have been criticized by some American researchers as "a concerted, strategic effort to redirect international space cooperation in favor of short-term U.S. commercial interests".[136]
The Exploration Ground Systems (EGS) Program is one of three NASA programs based at NASA's Kennedy Space Center in Florida. EGS was established to develop and operate the systems and facilities necessary to process and launch rockets and spacecraft during assembly, transport, and launch.[137] EGS is preparing the infrastructure to support NASA's Space Launch System (SLS) rocket and its payloads, such as the Orion spacecraft for Artemis I.[138][139]
The Lunar Gateway is a space station to be constructed in lunar orbit, and the Gateway Logistics Services program will provide cargo and other supplies to the station, even when crews are not present.[140] As of 2022[update], only SpaceX's supply vehicle, known as Dragon XL, is planned to supply the Gateway. Dragon XL is a version of the Dragon spacecraft, to be launched by the Falcon Heavy. Unlike Dragon 2 and its predecessor, it is intended to be an expendable spacecraft.
As of the early mission concepts outlined by NASA in May 2020 and refined by the HLS contract award in July 2021, the primary Earth-launch vehicles planned to support the Artemis program will include the NASA Space Launch System for the Orion vehicle, the Falcon Heavy for various components of the Lunar Gateway,[141] and the Starship HLS configuration for the eventual delivery of the HLS vehicle. Other standard SpaceX Starships may be used later to meet other and yet to be determined crew and/or cargo handling mission needs.[142] Additional launch vehicles will also be employed later for CLPS cargo services. The European Ariane 6 has been proposed to be part of the program in July 2019.[143]
The Power and Propulsion Element (PPE) module and the Habitation and Logistics Outpost (HALO) of the Gateway, which were previously planned for the SLS Block 1B,[144] will now fly together on a Falcon Heavy in 2027.[145][146][147] The Gateway will be supported and resupplied by approximately 28 commercial cargo missions launched by undetermined commercial launch vehicles.[148] The Gateway Logistics Services (GLS) will be in charge of resupply missions.[148] GLS has also contracted for the construction of a resupply vehicle, Dragon XL, capable of remaining docked to the Gateway for one year of operations, providing and generating its own power while docked, and capable of autonomous disposal at the end of its mission.[148][149][150]
In May 2019, the plan was for components of a crewed lunar lander to be deployed to the Gateway on commercial launchers before the arrival of the first crewed mission, Artemis III.[151] An alternative approach where the HLS and Orion dock together directly was discussed.[152][153]
As late as mid-2019, NASA considered use of Delta IV Heavy and Falcon Heavy to launch a crewed Orion mission given SLS delays.[154] Given the complexity of conversion to a different vehicle, the agency ultimately decided to use only the SLS to launch astronauts.[9]
| Launch vehicle |
Missions | Payload | Estimated cost per launch |
First launch | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| LEO | TLI | ||||
| SLS Block 1 | Crew transportation | 95 t | 27 t | US$2 billion | 16 November 2022[4] |
| SLS Block 1B | Crew transportation, I-HAB Gateway Module |
105 t | 42 t | US$2 billion | In development (2028) |
| SLS Block 2 | Crew transportation, Heavy payloads |
130 t | 45 t | US$2 billion | In development (after 2029) |
| Falcon Heavy | Dragon XL launches, two Gateway modules, VIPER (cancelled) |
63.8 t | US$150 million (expendable)[155] |
6 February 2018 | |
| Vulcan Centaur | CLPS missions | 27.2 t | 12.1 t | US$82–200 million | 8 January 2024 |
| Falcon 9 | CLPS missions | 22.8 t | US$62 million[156] | 2010 | |
| Electron | CAPSTONE | 0.3 t | US$7.5 million[157][158] | 2017 | |
| Starship | Starship HLS, heavy CLPS payloads |
150 t | 150 t[lower-alpha 1] | US$2 million (goal)[159][lower-alpha 2] | 20 April 2023 |
| Ariane 6 | Argonaut | 21.6 t | 8.6 t | €115 million[160][161] | 9 July 2024[162][163] |
| New Glenn | Blue Moon | 45 t | 7 t | $68 million | November 2024 |
The Space Launch System (SLS) is a United States super heavy-lift expendable launch vehicle, which has been under development since its announcement in 2011. The SLS is the main Earth-launch vehicle of the Artemis lunar program, as of March 2021[update]. NASA is required by the U.S. Congress to use SLS Block 1, which will be powerful enough to lift a payload of 95 t (209,000 lb) to low Earth orbit (LEO), and will launch Artemis I, II, and III.[164][165][166] Starting in 2028, Block 1B is intended to debut the Exploration Upper Stage (EUS) and launch the notional Artemis IV–VII.[167][168]
Starting in 2029, Block 2 is planned to replace the initial Shuttle-derived boosters with advanced boosters and would have a LEO capability of more than 130 t (130 long tons; 140 short tons), again as required by Congress.[169] Block 2 is intended to enable crewed launches to Mars.[7] The SLS will launch the Orion spacecraft and use the ground operations capabilities and launch facilities at NASA's Kennedy Space Center in Florida.
In March 2019, the Trump administration released its Fiscal Year 2020 Budget Request for NASA. This budget did not initially include any money for the Block 1B and Block 2 variants of SLS, but later a request for a budget increase of $1.6 billion towards SLS, Orion, and crewed landers was made. Block 1B is now intended to debut on Artemis IV and will be used mainly for co-manifested crew transfers and logistics rather than constructing the Gateway as initially planned. An uncrewed Block 1B was planned to launch the Lunar Surface Asset in 2028, the first lunar outpost of the Artemis program, but now that launch has been moved to a commercial launcher.[170] Block 2 development will most likely start in the late 2020s after NASA is regularly visiting the lunar surface and shifts focus towards Mars.[171]
In October 2019, NASA authorized Boeing to purchase materials in bulk for more SLS rockets ahead of the announcement of a new contract. The contract was expected to support up to ten core stages and eight Exploration Upper Stages for the SLS 1B to transfer heavy payloads of up to 40 metric tons on a lunar trajectory.[172]
The SpaceX Starship system is a fully-reusable super heavy-lift Earth-launch system which is under development. It consists of a first-stage booster named Super-Heavy and a second-stage space vehicle which is generally named Starship and which will have several variants. A Starship HLS mission will use three variants: a tanker, a propellant depot, and the Starship HLS itself which will be designed only for lunar landings and takeoffs, and not for Earth landings. Some variants will be able to return to Earth for reuse.
The second-stage Starships are fully self-contained spacecraft, complete with their own propulsion systems. The combined Starship system using standard Starship variants for its second-stage is planned to launch crews and cargo, which may then be used to support the various developmental needs of the Artemis program, and also to support the needs of other NASA and SpaceX programs.
The SpaceX Starship is also qualified to be bid for Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) launches, and in 2021 was the winning NASA bid for a crewed lunar landing.[173][174][175]
The SpaceX Falcon Heavy is a partially reusable heavy-lift launcher. It will be used to launch the first two Gateway modules into NRHO.[176] It will also be used to launch the Dragon XL spacecraft on supply missions to Gateway,[177] and it is qualified to be bid for other launches under the CLPS program. It was selected under CLPS to launch the VIPER mission, though this mission was later cancelled in 2024 due to cost overruns and mission delays.[178]
Under the CLPS (Commercial Lunar Payload Service) program, qualified CLPS vendors can use any launcher that meets their mission requirements.
Orion is a class of partially reusable spacecraft to be used in the Artemis program. The spacecraft consists of a Crew Module (CM) space capsule designed by Lockheed Martin and the European Service Module (ESM) manufactured by Airbus Defence and Space. Capable of supporting a crew of six beyond low Earth orbit, Orion is equipped with solar panels, an automated docking system, and glass cockpit interfaces modeled after those used in the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. It has a single AJ10 engine for primary propulsion, and others including reaction control system engines. Although designed to be compatible with other launch vehicles, Orion is primarily intended to launch atop a Space Launch System (SLS) rocket, with a tower launch escape system.
Orion was originally conceived by Lockheed Martin as a proposal for the Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) to be used in NASA's Constellation program. Following the cancellation of the Constellation program in 2010, Orion was heavily redesigned for use in NASA's Journey to Mars initiative; later named Moon to Mars. The SLS replaced the Ares I as Orion's primary launch vehicle, and the service module was replaced with a design based on the European Space Agency's Automated Transfer Vehicle. A development version of Orion's CM was launched in 2014 during Exploration Flight Test-1, while at least four test articles were produced. By 2022, three flight-worthy Orion crew modules have been built, with an additional one ordered, for use in the Artemis program; the first of these was due to be launched on 30 November 2020, however Artemis I did not launch until 16 November 2022.
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On 27 March 2020, SpaceX revealed the Dragon XL resupply spacecraft to carry pressurized and unpressurized cargo, experiments and other supplies to NASA's planned Lunar Gateway under a Gateway Logistics Services (GLS) contract.[179][180] The equipment delivered by Dragon XL missions could include sample collection materials, spacesuits and other items astronauts may need on the Gateway and on the surface of the Moon, according to NASA. It will launch on SpaceX Falcon Heavy rockets from LC-39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida.[181]
The Dragon XL will stay at the Gateway for 6 to 12 months at a time, when research payloads inside and outside the cargo vessel could be operated remotely, even when crews are not present.[181] Its payload capacity is expected to be more than 5,000 kilograms (11,000 lb) to lunar orbit.[182] There is no requirement for a return to Earth. At the end of the mission the Dragon XL must be able to undock and dispose of the same mass it can bring to the Gateway, by moving the spacecraft to a heliocentric orbit.[183]
On February 22, 2023, NASA discussed the Dragon XL's development for the first time since its 2020 unveiling, with Mark Wiese, NASA's manager of deep space logistics for the Gateway program, answering during a panel at SpaceCom that NASA has been working with SpaceX to run a series of studies to refine the Dragon XL design and examine cargo configurations and other capabilities that could be enabled by the spacecraft.[184] Wiese also elaborated that Dragon XL would be used for initial missions, and stating that “[NASA] talked to [SpaceX] about Starship evolution and how it all worked together, but we’re not there yet because it's still in a development phase” insinuating that Starship will eventually replace Dragon XL once it completes development.[184]
On March 29, 2024, NASA released an article outlining the mission of Artemis IV, which is to be the first crewed mission to the Lunar Gateway slated for 2028, stating that the Dragon XL will be used to resupply and carry science experiments, however, Artemis IV will take place concurrently with a Starship launch which will dock at the Gateway and help with the assembly of the station.[185]The Human Landing System (HLS) is a critical component of the Artemis mission. This system transports crew from lunar orbit (the Gateway or an Orion spacecraft) to the lunar surface, acts as a lunar habitat, and then transports the crew back to lunar orbit. In 2021 SpaceX's Starship HLS program was awarded the winning NASA bid for the production of a crewed lunar landing vehicle.[173] In May 2023, Blue Origin was selected as the second provider for lunar lander services.[186][187]
Bidding for NASA's HLS lunar landing vehicle began in 2019. At that time, NASA elected to have the HLS designed and developed by commercial vendors. Eleven competing contracts were initially awarded in May 2019. In April 2020, NASA awarded three competing design contracts, and in April 2021, NASA selected the Starship HLS to proceed to development and production.
Separate from its early design and development program for its first HLS spacecraft, NASA retains multiple smaller contracts to study various elements of alternative HLS designs.
The Starship Human Landing System (Starship HLS) was the winner selected by NASA for potential use for long-duration crewed lunar landings as part of NASA's Artemis program.[44][188]
Starship HLS is a variant of SpaceX's Starship spacecraft optimized to operate on and around the Moon. In contrast to the Starship spacecraft from which it derives, Starship HLS will never re-enter an atmosphere, so it does not have a heat shield or flight control surfaces. In contrast to other proposed HLS designs that used multiple stages, the entire spacecraft will land on the Moon and will then launch from the Moon. Like other Starship variants, Starship HLS has Raptor engines mounted at the tail as its primary propulsion system. However, when it is within "tens of meters" of the lunar surface during descent and ascent, it will use high-thrust methane/oxygen RCS thrusters located mid-body instead of the Raptors to avoid raising dust via plume impingement. A solar array located on the nose below the docking port provides electrical power. Elon Musk stated that Starship HLS would be able to deliver "potentially up to 200 tons" to the lunar surface.
Starship HLS would be launched to Earth orbit using the SpaceX Super Heavy booster, and would use a series of tanker spacecraft to refuel the Starship HLS vehicle in Earth orbit for lunar transit and lunar landing operations, a capability referred to as orbital refueling. Starship HLS would then boost itself to lunar orbit for rendezvous with Orion. In the mission concept, a NASA Orion spacecraft would carry a NASA crew to the lander, where they would depart and descend to the surface of the Moon. After lunar surface operations, Starship HLS would lift off from the lunar surface acting as a single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) vehicle and return the crew to Orion.
On 19 May 2023, NASA announced an additional contract to Blue Origin to develop a second crewed lunar lander, which will make its first crewed flight as part of the Artemis V mission. Blue Moon is smaller than the SpaceX HLS lander, having only 20 tons of payload capacity. The lander is fueled with a combination of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen propellants.[189]
NASA's Gateway is an in-development mini-space station in lunar orbit intended to serve as a solar-powered communication hub, science laboratory, short-term habitation module, and holding area for rovers and other robots.[190] While the project is led by NASA, the Gateway is meant to be developed, serviced, and used in collaboration with commercial and international partners: Canada (Canadian Space Agency) (CSA), Europe (European Space Agency) (ESA), and Japan (JAXA).
The Power and Propulsion Element (PPE) started development at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory during the now canceled Asteroid Redirect Mission (ARM). The original concept was a robotic, high performance solar electric spacecraft that would retrieve a multi-ton boulder from an asteroid and bring it to lunar orbit for study.[191] When ARM was canceled, the solar electric propulsion was repurposed for the Gateway.[192][193] The PPE will allow access to the entire lunar surface and act as a space tug for visiting craft.[194] It will also serve as the command and communications center of the Gateway.[195][196] The PPE is intended to have a mass of 8–9 tonnes and the capability to generate 50 kW[197] of solar electric power for its ion thrusters, which can be supplemented by chemical propulsion.[198]
The Habitation and Logistics Outpost (HALO),[199][200] also called the Minimal Habitation Module (MHM) and formerly known as the Utilization Module,[201] will be built by Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems (NGIS).[202][203] A single Falcon Heavy equipped with an extended fairing[204] will launch the PPE together with the HALO in 2027.[145][146] The HALO is based on a Cygnus Cargo resupply module[202] to the outside of which radial docking ports, body mounted radiators (BMRs), batteries and communications antennae will be added. The HALO will be a scaled-down habitation module,[205] yet, it will feature a functional pressurized volume providing sufficient command, control, and data handling capabilities, energy storage and power distribution, thermal control, communications and tracking capabilities, two axial and up to two radial docking ports, stowage volume, environmental control and life support systems to augment the Orion spacecraft and support a crew of four for at least 30 days.[203]
In late October 2020, NASA and European Space Agency (ESA) finalized an agreement to collaborate in the Gateway program. ESA will provide a habitat module in partnership with JAXA (I-HAB) and a refueling module (ESPRIT). In return, Europe will have three flight opportunities to launch crew aboard the Orion crew capsule, for which they will provide the service module.[206][207]
In 2024, the HALO module reached substantial completion and entered into the stress test phase, following successful completion of which it will be shipped from Europe to the US in preparation for configuration with the PPE module and launch.[208]
On 10 January 2020, NASA's 22nd astronaut group, nicknamed the "Turtles", graduated and were assigned to the Artemis program. The group includes two Canadian Space Agency (CSA) astronauts. The group earned their nickname from the prior astronaut group, "The 8-Balls", as is a tradition dating back to "The Mercury Seven" in 1962 which subsequently provided the "Next Nine" with their nickname. They were given this name, for the most part, because of Hurricane Harvey. Some of the astronauts will fly on the Artemis missions to the Moon and may be part of the first crew to fly to Mars.[209]
On 9 December 2020, Vice President Mike Pence announced the first group of 18 astronauts (all American, including 9 male and 9 female from different backgrounds), the 1st Artemis team, who could be selected as astronauts of early missions of the Artemis program:[210]
Chief Astronaut Reid Wiseman said in August 2022, however, that all 42 active members of the NASA Astronaut Corps, and the ten more training as NASA Astronaut Group 23, are eligible for Artemis II and later flights.[211]
The Artemis Base Camp will support missions of up to two months and will be used to study technologies to use on future Moon or Mars bases, and then future stationary modules may be used regularly for decades to come through both Government and commercial programs. Most probably it will be a site that has already been visited by prior robotic missions. It will consist of three main modules:
In 2022, NASA has identified 13 candidate regions near the lunar South Pole for initial landing and inspection missions.[213]
In February 2020, NASA released two requests for information regarding both a crewed and uncrewed unpressurized surface rover. The latter, Lunar Terrain Vehicle (LTV) would be prepositioned by a CLPS vehicle before the Artemis III mission. It would be used to transport crews around the exploration site and serve a similar function to the Apollo Lunar Roving Vehicle. In July 2020, NASA established a program office for the rover at the Johnson Space Center in Houston.[214]
NASA has specified its need for a Lunar Terrain Vehicle (LTV) that has a cargo capacity of 800 kg, traversal distances of up to 20 km without battery recharging, continuous operations for 8 hours within a 24-hour period, the ability to survive the lunar night, and the ability to traverse grades as steep as ±20 degrees.[212]
On 3 April 2024, NASA announced that Intuitive Machines, Lunar Outpost and Venturi Astrolab are the three companies developing the LTV in a 12-month feasibility and demo phase.[215] A source selection statement by NASA provided further details on cost and overall feasibility on 9 April 2024. The Intuitive Machines proposal was for $1.692 billion, Lunar Outpost for $1.727 billion and Astrolab for $1.928 billion to develop the vehicle.[216]
The Artemis Base Camp is the proposed lunar base to be established at the end of the 2020s. The Base camp is to be located in the south pole region near the two adjacent Shackleton and de-Gerlache craters,[217] due to this area's wide variety of lunar geography and also due to the abundance of water ice that is believed to exist in the lunar soils of the crater floors. The environs of these craters fall under the guidelines of the Outer Space Treaty.[214][218]
Most of the information about the Surface Habitat (SH) modules comes from studies and launch manifests which include a reference to its launch. It will be commercially built and commercially launched in the early 2030s along with the Pressurized Vehicle (PV).[219] The SH was formerly referred to as the Artemis Surface Asset. Current launch plans show that landing it on the surface would be similar to the HLS. The SH would be sent to the Gateway where it would then be attached to a descent stage and subsequently transported to the lunar surface with a commercial launcher and lander. It would use the same lunar transfer stage as used for the HLS. Other designs from 2019 see it being launched from an SLS Block 1B as a single unit and landing directly on the surface. It would then be hooked up to a surface power system launched by a CLPS mission and tested by the Artemis VI crew.[214][220] The Italian Space Agency signed a contract with Thales Alenia Space in late 2023 for the Multi Purpose Habitat, which may become the second module for the Artemis Base Camp.[221][222]
As of February 2020, a lunar stay during a Phase 1 Artemis mission will be about seven days and will have five extravehicular activities (EVA). A notional concept of operations, i.e., a hypothetical but possible plan, would include the following: On Day 1 of the stay, astronauts touchdown on the Moon but do not conduct an EVA. Instead, they prepare for the EVA scheduled for the next day, in what is referred to as "The Road to EVA".[223]
On Day 2, the astronauts open the hatch on the Human Landing System and embark on EVA 1, which will be six hours long. It will include collecting a contingency sample, conducting public affairs activities, deploying the experiment package, and acquiring samples. The astronauts will stay close to the landing site on this first EVA. EVA 2 begins on day 3. The astronauts characterize and collect samples from permanently shadowed regions. Unlike the previous EVA, the astronauts will go farther from the landing site, up to 2 kilometres (1.2 mi), and up and down slopes of 20°.[223]
Day 4 will not include an EVA, but Day 5 will. EVA 3 may include activities such as collecting samples from an ejecta blanket. Day 6 will have the two astronauts deploy a geotechnical instrument alongside an environmental monitoring station for in-situ resource utilization (ISRU). Day 7 will have the final and shortest EVA. This EVA will last one hour, rather than the others' six hours in duration from egress to ingress, and mostly comprises preparations for the lunar ascent, including jettisoning hardware. Once the final EVA is concluded, the astronauts will return to the Human Landing System and the vehicle will launch from the surface and join up with Orion/Gateway.[223]
The Pressurized Rover (PR) is a large, pressurized module used to enable crewed operation across large distances and live for multiple days. NASA had developed multiple pressurized rovers including what was formerly called the Space Exploration Vehicle (SEV). This rover was built for the Constellation program and was fabricated and then tested. In the 2020 flight manifest it was later referred to as the "Mobile Habitat" suggesting it could fill a similar role to the ILREC Lunar Bus. It would be ready for the crew to use on the surface but could also be autonomously controlled from the Gateway or other locations.
Mark Kirasich, who is the acting director of NASA's Advanced Exploration Systems, has stated that the current plan is to partner with JAXA and Toyota to develop a closed cabin rover to support crews for up to 14 days (currently known as Lunar Cruiser). "It's very important to our leadership at the moment to involve JAXA in a major surface element", he said. "... The Japanese, and their auto industry, have a very strong interest in rover-type things. So, there was an idea to—even though we have done a lot of work—to let the Japanese lead development of a pressurized rover. So right now, that's the direction we're heading in".
In regard to the PR, senior-lunar-scientist Clive Neal said "Under Constellation, NASA had a sophisticated rover put together. It's pretty sad if it's never going to get to the Moon". However Neal also said that he understands the different mission objectives between the Constellation Program and those of the Artemis Program, and the need of the Artemis Program to focus more on international collaboration.[214][224][225][226][227]
On 9 April 2024, it was announced that JAXA and NASA had signed an agreement stipulating that Japan would join the pressurized rover collaboration venture and would design, develop, and operate a rover for crewed and uncrewed exploration of the Moon. In return, NASA will provide the launch and delivery of the rover to the Moon, as well as providing seats for two Japanese astronaut missions to the lunar surface, with the goal of these astronauts being the first non-Americans to travel to the Moon's surface. The pressurized rover is planned to accommodate two astronauts for up to 30 days outside. NASA plans to use the pressurized rover from Artemis VII and subsequent missions, over an approximate 10 year lifespan.[228]
The Artemis program will make use of two types of space suit revealed in October 2019: the Exploration Extravehicular Mobility Unit (xEMU),[229] and the Orion Crew Survival System (OCSS).[230]
On 10 August 2021, a NASA Office of Inspector General audit reported a conclusion that the spacesuits would not be ready until April 2025 at the earliest, likely delaying the mission from the then planned late 2024.[231] In response to the IG report, SpaceX indicated that they could provide the suits.[232]
NASA published a draft RFP to procure commercially-produced spacesuits in order to meet the 2024 schedule.[233] On 2 June 2022, NASA announced that commercially produced spacesuits would be developed by Axiom Space and Collins Aerospace.[234] In early 2024, the development reached the critical design and test phase.[235][236]
A prototype version of the Orion Crew Module was launched on Exploration Flight Test-1 on 5 December 2014[237][238] atop a Delta IV Heavy rocket. Its reaction control system and other components were tested during two medium Earth orbits, reaching an apogee of 5,800 km (3,600 mi) and crossing the Van Allen radiation belts before making a high-energy re-entry at 32,000 km/h (20,000 mph).[239][240]
The Ascent Abort-2 test on 2 July 2019 tested the final iteration of the launch abort system on a 10,000 kg (22,000 lb) Orion boilerplate at maximum aerodynamic load,[241][242][243] using a custom Minotaur IV-derived launch vehicle built by Orbital ATK.[243][244]
As of November 2022[update], all crewed Artemis missions will launch on the Space Launch System from Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39B. Current plans call for some supporting hardware to be launched on other vehicles and from other launch pads.
| Mission | Patch | Launch date | Crew | Launch vehicle | Lander vehicle | Duration | Goal | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Artemis I |  |
16 November 2022[65][4] | — | SLS Block 1 | — | 25 days[245] | Uncrewed lunar orbit and return | Success |
| Artemis II | September 2025 | SLS Block 1 | — | 10 days[246] | 4-person lunar flyby | Planned | ||
| Artemis III | September 2026[5] | TBA | SLS Block 1 | Starship HLS Option A [13] | ~30 days | 4-person lunar orbit with 2-person lunar landing.[247] | Planned | |
| Artemis IV | September 2028[12] | TBA | SLS Block 1B | Starship HLS Option B [13] | ~30 days | 4-person lunar orbit, lunar landing,[13] and delivery of the I-HAB module to the Lunar Gateway.[248] | Planned | |
| Artemis V | March 2030[14] | TBA | SLS Block 1B | Blue Origin Blue Moon[249] | ~30 days | Lunar landing with the Lunar Terrain Vehicle and delivery of the ESPRIT Refueling Module to the Lunar Gateway, followed by a crewed lunar landing. | Planned | |
| Artemis VI | March 2031[14] | TBA | SLS Block 1B | TBA | ~30 days | Lunar landing with the delivery of the Crew and Science Airlock module. | Planned | |
In November 2021, plans to return humans to the Moon in 2024 were cancelled, and the Artemis III mission was delayed until at least 2025. It has since been delayed to September 2026.[250] Artemis VII is expected to deliver a crew of four astronauts to a surface lunar outpost known as the Foundation Habitat, along with the Mobile Habitat, which is expected to occur in March 2032.[12][170] The Foundation Habitat would be launched back to back with the Mobile Habitat by an undetermined super heavy launcher[170] and would be used for extended crewed lunar surface missions.[170][251][252]
Prior to each crewed Artemis mission, payloads to the Gateway, such as refueling depots and expendable elements of the lunar lander, would be deployed by commercial launch vehicles.[253][252] The most updated manifest includes missions suggested in NASA's timelines that have not been designed or funded from Artemis IV to IX.[254][255][170][219]
| Mission | Launch date | Crew | Launch vehicle | Duration | Goal (proposed) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Artemis VII | March 2032[14] | TBA | SLS Block 1B | ~30 days | Lunar landing with the delivery of the Habitable Mobility Platform (Lunar Cruiser) to the surface |
| Artemis VIII | 2033 | TBA | SLS Block 1B | ~60 days | Lunar landing with the delivery of lunar surface logistics and the Foundational Surface Habitat |
| Artemis IX | 2034 | TBA | SLS Block 2 | ~60 days | Lunar landing with the delivery of additional lunar surface logistics |
| Artemis X | 2035 (planned) | TBA | SLS Block 2 | <180 days | Lunar landing – a long-term stay with the delivery of lunar surface logistics |
| Artemis XI | 2036 (planned) | TBA | SLS Block 2 | ~365 days | Lunar living – Expansion of lunar surface base and crew shift |
Artemis support missions are robotic missions flown through the CLPS program and Gateway program, and HLS demo and delivery missions.[170]
| Date [lower-alpha 1] | Mission objective | Mission name | Launch vehicle | Outcome | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 28 June 2022[256] | NRHO Pathfinder mission CAPSTONE[257] | CAPSTONE | Electron | Operational | |
| 8 January 2024[258][259] | First launch of the Peregrine lunar lander by Astrobotic Technology[260] | Peregrine Mission One | Vulcan Centaur[261] | Failure | Landing abandoned due to excessive propellant leak and Sun-pointer issue in the lander.[262] |
| 15 February 2024[263] | First launch of the Intuitive Machines Nova-C Odysseus lunar lander by Intuitive Machines[141] | IM-1 Odysseus lander | Falcon 9 | Success | |
| January 2025[264] | Second launch of an Intuitive Machines Nova-C lunar lander by Intuitive Machines. One of the payloads is PRIME-1, an ISRU demonstration. | IM-2 Athena | Falcon 9 | Scheduled | |
| September 2025[265] | Astrobotic Technology's Griffin lunar lander[266] | Griffin Mission-1 | Falcon Heavy[267] | Planned | |
| October 2025[268] | Third launch of an Intuitive Machines Nova-C lunar lander by Intuitive Machines | IM-3 | Falcon 9 | Scheduled | |
| 2025[5] | Starship HLS uncrewed HLS Demo landing mission | HLS Uncrewed Lunar Demo | Starship | Planned | |
| 2026[5][12] | Delivery of Starship HLS for Artemis III | HLS Crewed Lunar Demo | Starship | Planned | |
| 2027[145] | Launch of the Power and Propulsion Element (PPE) and the Habitation and Logistics Outpost (HALO) as an integrated assembly. First two Lunar Gateway modules. | PPE-HALO | Falcon Heavy | Planned | Artemis support mission |
| 2028[14] | Lunar Surface Power Demo; Lunar Surface Scaled Construction Demo 1; ISRU Pilot Excavator; ISRU Subscale Demo | TO LIFT-1 | Commercial launch vehicle | Planned | |
| 2028[12] | Delivery of Starship HLS for Artemis IV | Sustaining HLS Crewed Lunar Demo | Starship | Planned | |
| 2028[12] | Blue Moon uncrewed HLS Demo landing mission | Sustaining HLS Uncrewed Lunar Demo | New Glenn | Planned | |
| 2029[12] | Delivery of Blue Moon HLS for Artemis V | Sustaining HLS Crewed Lunar Demo | New Glenn | Planned | |
| 2031[12] | Delivery of TBD HLS for Artemis VI | TBD Sustaining HLS Services | Commercial launch vehicle | Planned | |
| 2032[14] | Lunar Surface Scaled Construction Demo 2; Autonomous Robotics Demo; Deployable Hopper 2; ISRU Subscale Demo 2 | TO LIFT-2 | Commercial launch vehicle | Planned | |
| 2032[14] | Fission Surface Power Demo | Artemis support mission | Commercial launch vehicle | Planned | |
| 2032[14] | Delivery of TBD HLS for Artemis VII | TBD Sustaining HLS Services | Commercial launch vehicle | Planned | |
The Artemis program has received criticism from several space professionals.
Mark Whittington, who is a contributor to The Hill and an author of several space exploration studies, stated in an article that the "lunar orbit project doesn't help us get back to the Moon".[269]
Aerospace engineer, author, and Mars Society founder Robert Zubrin has voiced his distaste for the Gateway, which is part of the Artemis program as of 2027. He presented an alternative approach to a 2024 crewed lunar landing called "Moon Direct", a successor to his proposed Mars Direct. His vision phases out the SLS and Orion, replacing them with the SpaceX launch vehicles and SpaceX Dragon 2. It proposes using a heavy ferry/lander that would be refueled on the lunar surface via in situ resource utilization and transfer the crew from LEO to the lunar surface. The concept bears a heavy resemblance to NASA's own Space Transportation System proposal from the 1970s.[270]
Apollo 11 astronaut Buzz Aldrin disagrees with NASA's current goals and priorities, including their plans for a lunar outpost. He questioned the benefit of the idea to "send a crew to an intermediate point in space, pick up a lander there and go down". However, Aldrin expressed support for Robert Zubrin's "Moon Direct" concept which involves lunar landers traveling from Earth orbit to the lunar surface and back.[271]
The program attracted criticism for the fact that at least 15 launches will be required to refuel HLS in orbit per crewed mission.[272] In 2024, SpaceX's Jennifer Jensen stated on a call that Starship HLS will require ten launches.[273]
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