Apistogramma are exclusively found in tropical and subtropical South America in the lowlands east of the Andes. The highest richness is in the western Amazon Basin and Orinoco Basin, but there are also species in the Guianan Shield, eastern Amazon Basin, rivers flowing into the Atlantic in northern Brazil (Tocantins–Araguaia to Parnaíba) and the Río de la Plata Basin.[1][2][3][4] Although a few species are widespread, most members of this genus have small ranges.[4][5] Few members of the genus have been evaluated by the IUCN, mostly either ranking as least concern (not threatened) or data deficient (limited available data prevents an evaluation), but some of the highly localized Apistogramma species likely are threatened.[5][6][7] Primary threats to their survival are deforestation (causing changes in their microhabitat) and pollution (for example by oil drilling or mining).[6][7]
Apistogramma generally inhabit streams, or edges of rivers or lakes.[2] Most prefer sheltered habitats with leaf litter on the bottom in water with little movement and a shallow depth, up to about 40cm (1.3ft), although a few species occur deeper, in fast-flowing water, in more open habitats or at the surface among floating plants.[3][8]
Apistogramma are dwarf cichlids with adults reaching between 2 and 8cm (0.8–3.1in) in standard length depending on exact species.[1][2] Most species are strongly sexually dimorphic, with males generally larger than females and possessing different color patterns than the females (which at least when breeding are most frequently yellow with blackish markings); in a few species this pattern is reversed or the sexes are rather similar.[1][2][9] Additionally, they often change color depending on behavior, for example when looking for food, breeding or during aggressive encounters.[10] A few species, including A. agassizii, A. cacatuoides, A hongsloi and A. macmasteri, have been selectively bred by aquarists to achieve brighter colors than the natural, wild forms.[11][12][13][14]
Brood care is highly developed, as in most cichlids. Nearly all Apistogramma species spawn in crevices (small caves), typically in holes in sunken logs or branches, or in leaf litter aggregations. A number of breeding strategies exist in the genus. Some species breed in polygamous harems, while other species form monogamous pairs.[2] Three of the described species, A. barlowi, A. megastoma and A. pantalone, practice mouthbrooding, either by both parents or only by the female.[15][16] In most cases, regardless of the breeding strategy, the female is more highly involved with care of the eggs and fry, whilst the male defends a territory from predators.[2] The sex of the fry is affected by the water conditions: In all species where it has been studied warmer water results in more males and in some species more acidic water (lower pH) also results in more males.[17][18]
Apistogramma is part of Geophagini and its closest relatives are Apistogrammoides and Taeniacara.[19] There are currently 93 recognized Apistogramma species,[1][20] making it the most species-rich genus of cichlid in the Americas, together with Crenicichla.[4] New species of Apistogramma are regularly described,[8] and undescribed species—sometimes cryptic—are known to exist in the genus.[21] Several of the recognized species occur in more than one form,[4] and some of these actually may represent separate species, as appears to be the case for the "Papagayo" and "Pebás" forms, both typically included in A. ortegai.[5] A comprehensive taxonomic review of the genus is necessary.[2] The genus is sometimes divided into subgroups based on the appearance and phylogenetic relationship of the various species.[4][5]
van der Sleen, P.; J.S. Albert, eds. (2017). Field Guide to the Fishes of the Amazon, Orinoco, and Guianas. Princeton University Press. pp.366–367. ISBN978-0-691-17074-9.
Kullander, S.O., and E.J.G. Ferreira (2005). Two new species of Apistogramma Regan (Teleostei: Cichlidae) from the rio Trombetas, Pará State, Brazil. Neotrop. ichthyol. 3(3). doi:10.1590/S1679-62252005000300003
Tougard, C., C.R.G. Dávila, U. Römer, F. Duponchelle, F. Cerqueira, E. Paradis, B. Guinand, C.A. Chávez, V. Salas, S. Quérouil, S. Sirvas, and J.-F. Renno (2017). Tempo and rates of diversification in the South American cichlid genus Apistogramma (Teleostei: Perciformes: Cichlidae). PLoS ONE 12(9): e0182618. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0182618
Staeck, W., and I. Schindler (2019). Apistogramma psammophila – a new geophagine dwarf cichlid (Teleostei: Cichlidae) from the Rio Atabapo drainage in Colombia and Venezuela. Vertebrate Zoology 69(1): 103-110.
Rodrigues, R.R., J. Zuanon, K. Del-Claro, and L.N. Carvalho (2012). Reproductive behavior of the Amazonian dwarf cichlid Apistogramma hippolytae Kullander, 1982: offsetting costs and benefits. Acta Ethologica 15(1): 1-7. doi:10.1007/s10211-011-0107-8.
Rodrigues, R.R., L.N. Carvalho, J. Zuanon, and K. Del-Claro (2009). Color changing and behavioral context in the Amazonian Dwarf Cichlid Apistogramma hippolytae (Perciformes). Neotrop. ichthyol. 7(4). doi:10.1590/S1679-62252009000400013
Römer, C.I.; U. Römer; I. Hahn; D.P. Soares (2018). "Beiträge zur Biologie von Apistogramma-Arten: Auch Apistogramma pantalone Römer et al., 2006 ist ein fakultativer Maulbrüter". DCG-Informationen. 49 (9): 202–211.
Römer, U., and W. Beisenherz (1996). Environmental determination of sex in Apistogramma (Cichlidae) and two other freshwater fishes (Teleostei). Journal of Fish Biology 48(4): 714-725. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.1996.tb01467.x
Ospina-Álvarez, N., and F. Piferrer (2008). Temperature-dependent sex determination in fish revisited: Prevalence, a single sex ratio response pattern, and possible effects of climate change. PLoS One 3(7): e2837. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002837
López-Fernández, H., R.L. Honeycutt, M.L.J. Stiassny, and K.O. Winemiller (2005). Morphology, molecules, and character congruence in the phylogeny of South American geophagine cichlids (Perciformes, Labroidei). Zoologica Scripta 34(6): 627–651. doi:10.1111/j.1463-6409.2005.00209.x
Carvalho, A.P.C., R.A. Collins, J.G. Martínez, I.P. Farias, and T. Hrbek (2019). From shallow to deep divergences: mixed messages from Amazon Basin cichlids. Hydrobiologia 832(1): 317–329. doi:10.1007/s10750-018-3790-x
Mesa S., L.M.; Lasso, C.A. (2011). Revisión del género Apistogramma Regan, 1913 (Perciformes, Cichlidae) en la cuenca del río Orinoco. Serie Editorial Recursos Hidrobiológicos y Pesqueros Continentales de Colombia. Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt. ISBN978-958-8343-64-8.
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