Pahari-Pothwari

Pahari-Pothwari is an Indo-Aryan language variety of Lahnda group,^{[lower-alpha 2]} spoken on the Pothohar Plateau in the far north of Punjab, Pakistan, as well as in most of Pakistan-administered Azad Kashmir and in western areas of Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir, is known by a variety of names, the most common of which are Pahari (English: /pəˈhɑːri/;^[1] an ambiguous name also applied to other unrelated languages of India), and Pothwari (or Pothohari).

Pahari-Pothwari
پوٹھواری, پہاڑی Poṭhwārī, Pahāṛī
Native to	Pakistan
Region	Pothohar region of Punjab, Azad Kashmir and western parts of Jammu and Kashmir, other parts of India including Punjab and Haryana (by partition refugees and descendants)
Ethnicity	Punjabis
Native speakers	several million[lower-alpha 1]
Language family	Indo-European Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Northwestern Punjabic Lahnda Pahari-Pothwari
Writing system	Shahmukhi
Language codes
ISO 639-3	phr
Glottolog	paha1251  Pahari Potwari

The language is transitional between Hindko and Standard Punjabi^[2] and is mutually intelligible with both.^[3] There have been efforts at cultivation as a literary language,^[4] although a local standard has not been established yet.^[5] The Shahmukhi script is used to write the language, such as in the works of Punjabi poet Mian Muhammad Bakhsh.

Grierson in his early 20th-century Linguistic Survey of India assigned it to a so-called "Northern cluster" of Lahnda (Western Punjabi), but this classification, as well as the validity of the Lahnda grouping in this case, have been called into question.^[6] In a sense both Pothwari, as well as other Lahnda varieties, and Standard Punjabi are "dialects" of a "Greater Punjabi" macrolanguage.^[7]

Due to effects of dominant languages in Pakistani media like Urdu, Standard Punjabi and English and religious impact of Arabic and Persian, Pahari-Pothwari like other regional varieties of Pakistan are continuously expanding its vocabulary base with loan words.^[8]

Geographic distribution and dialects

75km
50miles

Baramulla

Srinagar

Bagh

Rajouri

Poonch

Jhelum

Murree

Mirpur

Gujarkhan

Bharakao

Abbottabad

Muzaffarabad

  

Azad Kashmir and surrounding areas with some of the locations mentioned in this section. Places where Pahari–Pothwari is spoken are in dark red.

There are at least three major dialects: Pothwari, Mirpuri and Pahari.^{[lower-alpha 3]}

The dialects are mutually intelligible,^[9] but the difference between the northernmost and the southernmost dialects (from Muzaffarabad and Mirpur respectively) is enough to cause difficulties in understanding.^[10]

Pothohar Plateau

Pothwari (پوٹھواری), also spelt Potwari, Potohari and Pothohari (پوٹھوہاری),^[11] is spoken in the Pothohar Plateau of northern Punjab,^[12] an area administratively within Rawalpindi division.^[13] Pothwari is its most common name, and some call it Pindiwal Punjabi to differentiate it from the Punjabi spoken elsewhere in Punjab.^[14]

Pothwar scenery with hill backdrop

Geographic distribution of various Pahari languages and dialects across the Lower Himalayas. (Blue - Pahari-Pothwari, Purple - Hindko)

Pothwari extends southwards up to the Salt Range, with the city of Jhelum marking the border with Majha Punjabi. To the north, Pothwari transitions into the Pahari-speaking area, with Bharakao, near Islamabad, generally regarded as the point where Pothwari ends and Pahari begins.^[15] Pothwari has been represented by their own people and their own community as they re-presented with their own ethnic group,^{[5][lower-alpha 4]} 85.1% of households had Pothwari as mother tongue.

Among the dialects of the Pahari-Pothwari dialect cluster, the variety spoken on the Pothohar is the only native language in the Rawalpindi division and it is ethno-linguistic group.^{[citation needed]} This Pothwari is also regarded as the most prestigious dialect spoken in the region.^{[citation needed]}

Mirpur

East of the Pothwari areas, across the Jhelum River into Mirpur District in Azad Kashmir, the language is more similar to Pothwari than to the Pahari spoken in the rest of Azad Kashmir.^[16] Locally it is known by a variety of names:^{[lower-alpha 5]} Pahari, Mirpur Pahari, Mirpuri,^{[lower-alpha 6]} and Pothwari,^[17] while some of its speakers call it Punjabi.^[18] Mirpuris possess a strong sense of Kashmiri identity that overrides linguistic identification with closely related groups outside Azad Kashmir, such as the Pothwari Punjabis.^[19] The Mirpur region has been the source of the greater part of Pakistani immigration to the UK, a process that started when thousands were displaced by the construction of the Mangla Dam in the 1960s and emigrated to fill labour shortages in England.^[20] The British Mirpuri diaspora now numbers several hundred thousand, and Pahari has been argued to be the second most common mother tongue in the UK, yet the language is little known in the wider society there and its status has remained surrounded by confusion.^[21]

Kashmir, Murree and the Galyat

Pahari (پہاڑی) is spoken to the north of Pothwari. The central cluster of Pahari dialects is found around Murree.^[22] This area is in the Galyat: the hill country of Murree Tehsil in the northeast of Rawalpindi District (just north of the capital Islamabad) and the adjoining areas in southeastern Abbottabad District.^[23] One name occasionally found in the literature for this language is Dhundi-Kairali (Ḍhūṇḍī-Kaiṛālī), a term first used by Grierson^[24] who based it on the names of the two major tribes of the area – the Kairal and the Dhund.^[12] Its speakers call it Pahari in Murree tehsil, while in Abbottabad district it is known as either Hindko or Ḍhūṇḍī.^[25] Nevertheless, Hindko – properly the language of the rest of Abbottabad District and the neighbouring areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa – is generally regarded as a different language.^[26] It forms a dialect continuum with Pahari, ^[12] and the transition between the two is in northern Azad Kashmir and in the Galyat region. For example, on the road from Murree northwest towards the city of Abbottabad, Pahari gradually changes into Hindko between Ayubia and Nathiagali.^[27]

Distribution of Pahari-Pothwari dialects with subdivisions overlayed

A closely related dialect is spoken across the Jhelum River in Azad Kashmir, north of the Mirpuri areas. Names associated in the literature with this dialect are Pahari (itself the term most commonly used by the speakers themselves), Chibhālī,^[28] named after the Chibhal region^[29] or the Chibh ethnic group,^[13] and Poonchi (پونچھی, also spelt Punchhi). The latter name has been variously applied to either the Chibhali variety specific to the district of Poonch,^[30] or to the dialect of the whole northern half of Azad Kashmir.^[31] This dialect (or dialects) has been seen either as a separate dialect from the one in Murree,^[24] or as belonging to the same central group of Pahari dialects.^[32] The dialect of the district of Bagh, for example, has more shared vocabulary with the core dialects from Murree (86–88%) than with the varieties of either Muzaffarabad (84%) or Mirpur (78%).^[33]

In Muzaffarabad the dialect shows lexical similarity^{[lower-alpha 7]} of 83–88% with the central group of Pahari dialects, which is high enough for the authors of the sociolinguistic survey to classify it is a central dialect itself, but low enough to warrant noting its borderline status.^[34] The speakers however tend to call their language Hindko^[35] and to identify more with the Hindko spoken to the west,^[36] despite the lower lexical similarity (73–79%) with the core Hindko dialects of Abbottabad and Mansehra.^[37] Further north into the Neelam Valley the dialect, now known locally as Parmi, becomes closer to Hindko.^[38]

Pahari is also spoken further east across the Line of Control into the Pir Panjal mountains in Indian Jammu and Kashmir. The population, estimated at 1 million,^[39] is found in the region between the Jhelum and Chenab rivers: most significantly in the districts of Poonch and Rajouri, to a lesser extent in neighbouring Baramulla and Kupwara,^[40] and also – as a result of the influx of refugees during the Partition of 1947 – scattered throughout the rest of Jammu and Kashmir.^[41] Pahari is among the regional languages listed in the sixth schedule of the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir.^[42] This Pahari is sometimes conflated with the Western Pahari languages spoken in the mountainous region in the south-east of Indian Jammu and Kashmir. These languages, which include Bhadarwahi and its neighbours, are often called "Pahari", although not same they are closely related to Pahari–Pothwari.^[43]

Diaspora

Pahari-Pothwari is also very widely spoken in the United Kingdom. Labour shortages after World War II, and the displacement of peoples caused by the construction of the Mangla Dam, facilitated extensive migration of Pahari-Pothwari speakers to the UK during the 1950s and 1960s, especially from the Mirpur District. Academics estimate that between two thirds and 80% of people officially classified as British Pakistanis originate as part of this diaspora, with some suggesting that it is the second most spoken language of the United Kingdom, ahead of even Welsh, with hundreds of thousands of speakers.^[44] However, since there is little awareness of the identity of the language among speakers,^[45] census results do not reflect this.^[46] The highest proportions of Pahari-Pothwari speakers are found in urban centres, especially the West Midlands conurbation and the West Yorkshire Built-up Area.^[46]

Phonology

Vowels

Vowels of Pahari

	Front		Central		Back
	oral	nasal	oral	nasal	oral	nasal
Close	iː	ĩː			uː	ũː
Near-close	ɪ				ʊ
Mid	e eː	ẽː	ə		o oː
Open	æ æː		aː	ãː

Vowels of Pothwari

	Front		Central		Back
	oral	nasal	oral	nasal	oral	nasal
Close	i iː	ĩ ĩː			u uː	ũ ũː
Mid	e	ẽ	ɐ	ɐ̃	o	õ
Open					ɑ	ɑ̃

A long diphthong /ɑi/ can be realized as [äː].^[47]

Consonants

Consonants of Pahari^[48]

		Labial	Dental	Alveolar	Post-alv./ Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Stop/ Affricate	voiceless	p	t̪	t	t͡ʃ	k
	aspirated	pʰ	t̪ʰ	tʰ	t͡ʃʰ	kʰ
	voiced	b	d̪	d	d͡ʒ	ɡ
Fricative	voiceless	f		s	ʃ	x
	voiced	v		z		ɣ	ɦ
Nasal		m		n		ŋ
Approximant				l	j
Tap/Trill				r	ɽ

Consonants of Pothwari^[47]

		Labial	Alveolar	Retroflex	Post-alv./ Palatal	Velar/ Uvular	Glottal
Stop	voiceless	p	t	ʈ		k
	aspirated	pʰ	tʰ	ʈʰ		kʰ
	voiced	b	d	ɖ		ɡ
	breathy	bʱ	dʱ	ɖʱ		ɡʱ
Affricate	voiceless		t͡s
	aspirated		t͡sʰ
	voiced		d͡z
Fricative	voiceless	(f)	s		ʃ	(χ)	h
	voiced	v	z		(ʒ)	(ʁ)
Nasal		m	n	ɳ
Approximant			l	ɭ	j
Tap/Trill			r	ɽ

• Sounds [f, ʒ, χ, ʁ, q] are heard from Persian and Arabic loanwords.
• /h/ is realized as voiced [ɦ] in word-initial position.
• /n/ before a velar consonant can be heard as [ŋ].^[47]

Grammar and notable features

Future Tense

The future tense in Pothwari is formed by adding -s as opposed to the Eastern Punjabi gā.^[49]

This tense is also used in other Western Punjabi dialects such as the Jatki dialects, Shahpuri, Jhangochi and Dhanni, as well as in and Hindko and Saraiki.^[50]

English	Pahari-Pothwari			Eastern Punjabi
	Transliteration	Shahmukhi	Gurmukhi	Transliteration	Shahmukhi	Gurmukhi
I will do	Mãi karsā̃	مَیں کرساں	ਮੈਂ ਕਰਸਾਂ	Mãi karāngā	مَیں کرانگا	ਮੈਂ ਕਰਾਂਗਾ
We will do	Asā̃ karsā̃	اَساں کرساں	ਅਸਾਂ ਕਰਸਾਂ	Asī̃ karānge	اَسِیں کرانگے	ਅਸੀਂ ਕਰਾਂਗੇ
You will do (s)	Tū̃ karsãi	تُوں کرسَیں	ਤੂੰ ਕਰਸੈਂ	Tū̃ karãigā	تُوں کریں گا	ਤੂੰ ਕਰੇਂਗਾ
You will do (p)	Tusā̃ karso	تُساں کرسو	ਤੁਸਾਂ ਕਰਸੋ	Tusī̃ karoge	تُسِیں کروگے	ਤੁਸੀਂ ਕਰੋਗੇ
He/She will do	Ó karsi	اوه کَرسی	ਓਹ ਕਰਸੀ	Ó karega	اوه کرے گا	ਓਹ ਕਰੇਗਾ
They will do	Ó karsan	اوہ کرسن	ਓਹ ਕਰਸਨ	Ó karaṇge	اوه کرݨ گے	ਓਹ ਕਰਣਗੇ

This type of future tense was also used by classical Punjabi poets. Punjabi poet Bulleh Shah sometimes uses a similar form of future tense in his poetry^[51]

Shahmukhi: جو کُجھ کَرسین, سو کُجھ پاسیں

Transliteration: Jo kujh karsãi, so kujh paasãi

Translation: Whatsoever you do, is what you shall gain

- From one of Bulleh Shah's poems^[52]

Continuous Tense

Similar to other Punjabi varieties, Pothwari uses peyā (past tense form of pēṇā) to signify the continuous tense.^[53]

Present Continuous

English	Pahari-Pothwari
	Transliteration	Shahmukhi	Gurmukhi
I am doing (m.)	Mē̃ karnā peyā ā̃̀	میں کرنا پیا ہاں	ਮੈਂ ਕਰਨਾ ਪਿਆ ਹਾਂ
We are doing (m./mixed)	Asā̃ karne pa'e ā̃̀	اساں کرنے پئے ہاں	ਅਸਾਂ ਕਰਨੇ ਪਏ ਹਾਂ
You are doing (sing., m.)	Tū̃ karna peya aĩ̀	تُوں کرنا پیا ہیں	ਤੂੰ ਕਰਨਾ ਪਿਆ ਹੈਂ
You are doing (sing., f.)	Tū̃ karnī paī aĩ̀	تُوں کرنی پئی ہیں	ਤੂੰ ਕਰਨੀ ਪਈ ਹੈਂ
You are doing (plural, m./mixed)	Tusā̃ karne pa'e ò	تُساں کرنے پئے ہو	ਤੁਸਾਂ ਕਰਨੇ ਪਏ ਹੋ
He is doing	Ó karna peya aì	اوہ کرنا پیا ہے	ਉਹ ਕਰਨਾ ਪਿਆ ਹੈ
She is doing	Ó karnī paī aì	اوہ کرنی پئی ہے	ਉਹ ਕਰਨੀ ਪਈ ਹੈ
They are doing (m.)	Ó karne pa'e ìn	اوہ کرنے پئے ہِن	ਉਹ ਕਰਨੇ ਪਏ ਹਿਨ
They are doing (f.)	Ó karniyā̃ paiyā̃ ìn	اوہ کرنیاں پئیاں ہِن	ਉਹ ਕਰਨੀਆਂ ਪਈਆਂ ਹਿਨ

Past Continuous

The past continuous tense in Pothwari resembles that of Eastern Punjabi, however depending on the dialect, there may be slight variations.

English	Pahari-Pothwari	Standard Punjabi
I was doing (m.)	میں کرنا پیا ساں ਮੈਂ ਕਰਨਾ ਪਿਆ ਸਾਂ maĩ karna pya sã	میں کردا پیا ساں ਮੈਂ ਕਰਦਾ ਪਿਆ ਸਾਂ maĩ karda pya sã
We were doing (m./mixed)	اساں کرنے پئے سیاں/ساں ਅਸਾਂ ਕਰਨੇ ਪਏ ਸਿਆਂ/ਸਾਂ	اسِیں کردے پئے ساں ਅਸੀਂ ਕਰਦੇ ਪਏ ਸਾਂ
You were doing (sing., m.)	تُوں کرنا پیا سیں ਤੂੰ ਕਰਨਾ ਪਿਆ ਸੈਂ	تُوں کردا پیا سیں ਤੂੰ ਕਰਦਾ ਪਿਆ ਸੈਂ
You were doing (pl., m./mixed or sing. formal)	تُساں کرنے پئے سیو/سو ਤੁਸਾਂ ਕਰਨੇ ਪਏ ਸਿਓ/ਸੋ	تُسِیں کردے پئے سو ਤੁਸੀਂ ਕਰਦੇ ਪਏ ਸੋ
He was doing	اوہ کرنا پیا سا/سی ਉਹ ਕਰਨਾ ਪਿਆ ਸਾ/ਸੀ	اوہ کردا پیا سی ਉਹ ਕਰਦਾ ਪਿਆ ਸੀ
She was doing	اوہ کرنی پئی سی ਉਹ ਕਰਨੀ ਪਈ ਸੀ	اوہ کردی پئی سی ਉਹ ਕਰਦੀ ਪਈ ਸੀ
They were doing (m./mixed)	اوہ کرنے پئے سے/سن ਉਹ ਕਰਨੇ ਪਏ ਸੇ/ਸਨ	اوہ کردے پئے سن ਉਹ ਕਰਦੇ ਪਏ ਸਨ
They were doing (f.)	اوہ کرنِیاں پئیاں سِیاں/سن ਉਹ ਕਰਨੀਆਂ ਪਈਆਂ ਸੀਆਂ/ਸਨ	اوہ کردِیاں پئیاں سن ਉਹ ਕਰਦੀਆਂ ਪਈਆਂ ਸਨ

The place of "peyā" may sometimes be switched with respect to the verb.

"Tusā̃ báhū̃ changā kamm karne pa'e ò", meaning "You (plural/sing. formal) are doing a very good thing"

"Mē̃ vī tā̃ éhe gall ākhnā sā̃ peyā", meaning "I was also saying the same thing"

"Mē̃ vī tā̃ ehe gall peyā ākhnā ā̃̀", meaning "I am also saying the same thing"

Tribal groupings

Pahari-Pothwari speakers belong to the same tribes found in Punjab. While the names of the tribes remain the same, the Punjabi word for tribe Birādrī/Barādarī (برادری) becomes Bilādrī/Balādarī (بل ادری) in Pahari-Pothwari.

Numbering system

Pahari-Pothwari follows the numbering traditions of Standard Punjabi. A point of departure from Eastern Punjabi dialects occurs in the use of Trai (ترَے) instead of Tinn (تِنّ) for the number 3. Other Western Punjabi dialects also tend to use trai over tinn.^[54]

Similarly, Pothwari and other Western Punjabi dialects use "Yārā̃" (یاراں) for "Gyarā̃" (گیاراں), "Trei" (ترئی) for "Tei" (تئی) "Panji" (پنجِی) for "Pachchi" (پچّی) and "Trih" (ترِیہہ) for "Tih" (تِیہہ), for the numbers 11, 23, 25, and 30.

English		Pahari-Pothwari
Numbers	Numerals	Transliteration	Shahmukhi	Numerals
One	1	ikk	اِکّ	۱
Two	2	do	دو	۲
Three	3	trai	ترَے	۳
Four	4	chār	چار	۴
Five	5	panj	پَنج	۵
Six	6	che	چھے	۶
Seven	7	satt	سَتّ	۷
Eight	8	aṭṭh	اَٹّھ	۸
Nine	9	nau	نَو	۹
Ten	10	das	دَس	۱۰

Ordinals

The ordinal numbers are largely the same. The only difference occurs in the words for Second and Third. Second is Doowa (دووا) in Pothwari, whilst it is Dooja (دوجا) in Punjabi. Likewise Third is Treeya (تریا) in Pothwari whilst it is Teeja (تیجا) in Punjabi. Western Punjabi in general tends to follow this trend.

English	Pahari-Pothwari		Standard Punjabi		Jatki
Ordinals	Shahmukhi	Transliteration	Shahmukhi	Transliteration	Shahmukhi	Transliteration
First	پہلا	Pehla	پہلا	Pehla	پہلا	Pehla
Second	دووا	Dūwā	دوجا	Dūjjā	دووا / دُوجا	Dūwā / Dūjjā
Third	تریا	Trīyā	تیجا	Tījjā	ترِجیا	Trījjā
Fourth	چوتھا	Chottha	چوتھا	Chottha	چوتھا	Chottha

Direct case in Pahari-Pothwari

The direct case endings in Pahari-Pothwari remain the same as Standard Punjabi however the Direct pronouns differ.

english	Pahari-Pothwari
Pronouns	Transliteration	Shahmukhi	Gurmukhi
I	mẽ	مَیں	ਮੈਂ
We	as	اَس	ਅਸ
You	tū̃	تُوں	ਤੂੰ
You (plural)	tus	تُس	ਤੁਸ

tus and as are rarely used and are merged with the oblique tusã and assã

The oblique/ergative case

Oblique case endings remain the same between Pahari-Pothwari and Standard Punjabi.

English
pronouns	Transliteration	Shahmukhi	Gurmukhi
I	Same as direct case
We	Asā̄	اساں	ਮੇਂ
You	Same as direct case
You(plural)	Tusā̃	تُساں	ਤੁਸਾਂ
3rd person(near)	is
3rd person(remote)	us
3rd person(near) plural	innā̃
3rd person(remote) plural	unnā̃

Vocative, Locative and Instrumental case in Punjabi

These cases remain the same between Pahari-Pothwari and Standard Punjabi.

Dative and definite object marker

The dative and definite object marker in Pothwari is kī (ਕੀ /کی) as opposed to nū̃ (ਨੂੰ / نوں) in Standard Punjabi.

For example:

The phrase: lokkā̃ nū̃ (ਲੋਕਾਂ ਨੂੰ / لوکاں نوں), meaning "to the people" in Standard Punjabi, would become lokkā̃ kī (ਲੋਕਾਂ ਕੀ / لوکاں کی) in Pothwari.

Hence, the personal pronouns would be as follows:

English	Pahari-Pothwari		Standard Punjabi
	Shahmukhi	Gurmukhi	Shahmukhi	Gurmukhi
To me	میکی	ਮਿਕੀ	مَینُوں	ਮੈਨੂੰ
To you (sing.)	تُکی	ਤੁਕੀ	تَینُوں	ਤੈਨੂੰ
To you (plural.)	تُساں کی	ਤੁਸਾਂ ਕੀ	تُہانُوں	ਤੁਹਾਨੂੰ
To us	اساں کی	ਅਸਾਂ ਕੀ	سانُوں	ਸਾਨੂੰ
To him/her	اُس کی	ਉਸ ਕੀ	اوہنُوں	ਓਹਨੂੰ

Genitive marker

The genitive marker in Pahari-Pothwari is represented through the use of nā (ਨਾ / نا) as opposed to dā (ਦਾ / دا).^[55]

For example:

The phrase: lokkā̃ dā (ਲੋਕਾਂ ਦਾ / لوکاں دا), meaning "people's" or "of the people" in Pahari-Pothwari, would become lokkā̃ nā (ਲੋਕਾਂ ਨਾ / لوکاں نا).

This also affects some of the possessive pronouns as described above.

It should also be noted that in Pahari-Pothwari, the present form of verb does not end with the standard dā sound either, and is replaced with nā. This means that ākhdā would be ākhnā in Pahari-Pothwari meaning "to say" and similarly the word thakkdā would be thakknā in Pahari-Pothwari meaning "to look/to watch".

For example:

Miki eh nhi si chāhinā (میکی ایہہ نِیہ سی چاہینا), meaning "This is not what I wanted"

Oh kay ākhnā pyā ae? (اوہ کے پیا آکھنا ہے؟), meaning "What is he saying?"

This also affects the common Punjabi passive tense:

Isrā̃ nhi ākhee nā (اِسراں نہیں آکھِینا), instead of "ākhee dā", meaning "This is how it should be said"

genitive pronouns also change

English	Pahari-Pothwari		Jatki				Hindko
			Jhangvi/Shahpuri		Dhanni
	Shahmukhi	Gurmukhi	Shahmukhi	Gurmukhi	Shahmukhi	Gurmukhi	Shahmukhi	Gurmukhi
Mine	مھاڑا	ਮਹਾੜਾ	میرا	ਮੇਰਾ	مَینڈھا	ਮੈਂਢਾ	مڑھا	ਮੜ੍ਹਾ
Yours (sing.)	تَہاڑا	ਤਹਾੜਾ	تیرا	ਤੇਰਾ	تَینڈھا	ਤੈਂਢਾ	تُڑھا	ਤੁੜ੍ਹਾ
Yours (plural.)	تُساں نا	ਤੁਸਾਂ ਨਾ	تُہاڈا	ਤੁਹਾਡਾ	تُساڈا / تُساں دا	ਤੁਸਾਡਾ / ਤੁਸਾਂ ਦਾ	تُساں دا	ਤੁਸਾਂ ਦਾ
Ours	اساں نا / ساہڑا	ਅਸਾਂ ਨਾ / ਸਾਹੜਾ	ساڈا	ਸਾਡਾ	اساڈا / اساں دا	ਅਸਾਡਾ / ਅਸਾਂ ਦਾ	اساں دا	ਅਸਾਂ ਦਾ

Oblique case of nouns

Pahari-Pothwari has unique forms for nouns in oblique cases. This is not observed in Standard Punjabi, but is seen in Hindko.^[56]

English	Pahari-Pothwari		Standard Punjabi
	Shahmukhi	Gurmukhi	Shahmukhi	Gurmukhi
Housework	کھرے نا کمّ	ਘਰੇ ਨਾ ਕੰਮ	گھر دا کمّ	ਘਰ ਦਾ ਕੰਮ
Dinner	راتی نی روٹی	ਰਾਤੀ ਨੀ ਰੋਟੀ	رات دی روٹی	ਰਾਤ ਦੀ ਰੋਟੀ
In a young age	نِکّی عُمرے وِچّ	ਨਿੱਕੀ ਉਮਰੀ ਵਿੱਚ	نِکّی عُمر وِچّ	ਨਿੱਕੀ ਉਮਰ ਵਿੱਚ
On my heart	مھاڑے دِلّے اپّر	ਮਹਾੜੇ ਦਿਲੇ ਅੱਪਰ	میرے دِل تے	ਮੇਰੇ ਦਿਲ ਤੇ
With care	دھیانے نال	ਧਿਆਨੇ ਨਾਲ	دھیان نال	ਧਿਆਨ ਨਾਲ
Patiently	ارامے نال	ਅਰਾਮੇ ਨਾਲ	ارام نال	ਅਰਾਮ ਨਾਲ
To my sister	پھینُو کی	ਭੈਣੂ ਕੀ	بھین نُوں	ਭੈਣ ਨੂੰ
For my brother	بھراُو آسطے	ਭਰਾਊ ਆਸਤੇ	بھرا آسطے	ਭਰਾ ਆਸਤੇ
Important detail	کمّے نی گلّ	ਕੰਮੇ ਨੀ ਗੱਲ	کمّ دی گلّ	ਕੰਮ ਦੀ ਗੱਲ
There's no accounting for taste	شَونقے نا کوئی مُل نہیں ہوݨا	ਸ਼ੌਂਕੇ ਨਾ ਕੋਈ ਮੁੱਲ ਨਹੀਂ ਹੋਣਾ	شَونق دا کوئی مُل نہیں ہوندا	ਸ਼ੌਂਕ ਦਾ ਕੋਈ ਮੁੱਲ ਨਹੀਂ ਹੁੰਦਾ
Understand the point	گلّے کی سمجھ	ਗੱਲੇ ਕੀ ਸਮਝ	گلّ نُوں سمجھ	ਗੱਲ ਨੂੰ ਸਮਝ

Adding "i" to root form of verb

A peculiar feature of Pahari-Pothwari is to end the basic root form of verbs with an "i" sound.^[57]

English	Pahari-Pothwari		Standard Punjabi
	Shahmukhi	Gurmukhi	Shahmukhi	Gurmukhi
It happened	ہوئی گیا	ਹੋਈ ਗਿਆ	ہو گیا	ਹੋ ਗਿਆ
It may be possible	ہوئی سکنا اے	ਹੋਈ ਸਕਣਾ ਐ	ہو سکدا اے	ਹੋ ਸਕਦਾ ਐ
Together	رلی مِلی تے	ਰਲੀ ਮਿਲੀ ਤੇ	رل مِل کے	ਰਲ ਮਿਲ ਕੇ
Finish it	مُکائی چھوڑ	ਮੁਕਾਈ ਛੋੜ	مُکا چھڈّ/چھوڑ	ਮੁਕਾ ਛੋੜ/ਛੱਡ
Look	تکّی کنو	ਤੱਕੀ ਘਿਨੋ	تکّ لوو	ਤੱਕ ਲਵੋ
Come back after having lunch	روٹی کھائی تے مُڑی اچھِیں	ਰੋਟੀ ਖਾਈ ਤੇ ਮੁੜੀ ਅਛੀਂ	روٹی کھا کے مُڑ آوِیں	ਰੋਟੀ ਖਾ ਕੇ ਮੁੜ ਆਵੀਂ
Eat it	کھائی کھِن	ਖਾਈ ਘਿਨ	کھا لَے	ਖਾ ਲੈ
Sit quietly for once	کدے ٹِکی تے بہی وی جایا کر	ਕਦੇ ਟਿੱਕੀ ਤੇ ਬਹੀ ਵੀ ਜਾਇਆ ਕਰ	کدے ٹِک کے بہہ وی جایا کر	ਕਦੇ ਟਿੱਕ ਕੇ ਬਹਿ ਵੀ ਜਾਇਆ ਕਰ

Vocabulary

Words for "Coming" and "Going"

The Pahari-Pothwari word for "coming" is acchṇā, whereas for "going" gacchṇā, julṇā and jāṇā are used.^[57]

English	Pahari-Pothwari		Jatki		Standard Punjabi
	Shahmukhi	Gurmukhi	Shahmukhi	Gurmukhi	Shahmukhi	Gurmukhi
I am coming	میں اچھنا پیا ہاں	ਮੈਂ ਅੱਛਨਾ ਪਿਆ ਹਾਂ	میں آوندا پیا ہاں	ਮੈਂ ਆਵੰਦਾ ਪਿਆ ਹਾਂ	میں آوندا پیا ہاں	ਮੈਂ ਆਉਂਦਾ ਪਿਆ ਹਾਂ
I am going	میں گچھنا پیا ہاں میں جانا پیا ہاں	ਮੈਂ ਗੱਛਨਾ ਪਿਆ ਹਾਂ   ਮੈਂ ਜਾਨਾ ਪਿਆ ਹਾਂ	میں ویندا پیا ہاں میں جاوندا پیا ہاں	ਮੈਂ ਵੇਂਦਾ ਪਿਆ ਹਾਂ ਮੈਂ ਜਾਵੰਦਾ ਪਿਆ ਹਾਂ	میں جاندا پیا ہاں	ਮੈਂ ਜਾਂਦਾ ਪਿਆ ਹਾਂ
I am not understanding	میکی سمجھ نہیں اچھنی پئی	ਮਿਕੀ ਸਮਝ ਨਹੀਂ ਅੱਛਨੀ ਪਈ	مینُوں سمجھ نہیں آوندی پئی	ਮੈਨੂੰ ਸਮਝ ਨਹੀਂ ਆਵੰਦੀ ਪਈ	مینُوں سمجھ نہیں آوندی پئی	ਮੈਨੂੰ ਸਮਝ ਨਹੀਂ ਆਉਂਦੀ ਪਈ
I will leave tomorrow	میں کلّھ گیساں میں کلّھ جاساں	ਮੈਂ ਕੱਲ੍ਹ ਗੇਸਾਂ ਮੈਂ ਕੱਲ੍ਹ ਜਾਸਾਂ	میں کلّھ ویساں میں کلّھ جاساں	ਮੈਂ ਕੱਲ੍ਹ ਵੇਸਾਂ ਮੈਂ ਕੱਲ੍ਹ ਜਾਸਾਂ	میں کلّھ جاواں گا	ਮੈਂ ਕੱਲ੍ਹ ਜਾਵਾਂਗਾ
We are going for work	اساں کمّے اپّر جُلے ہاں	ਅਸਾਂ ਕੰਮੇ ਅੱਪਰ ਜੁਲੇ ਹਾਂ	اسِیں کمّ تے چلے ہاں	ਅਸੀਂ ਕੰਮ ਤੇ ਚਲੇ ਹਾਂ	اسِیں کمّ تے چلے ہاں	ਅਸੀਂ ਕੰਮ ਤੇ ਚਲੇ ਹਾਂ
It happens	ہوئی گچھنا ہے ہوئی جُلنا ہے ہوئی جانا ہے	ਹੋਈ ਗੱਛਨਾ ਹੈ ਹੋਈ ਜੁਲਨਾ ਹੈ ਹੋਈ ਜਾਨਾ ਹੈ	ہو ویندا ہے ہو جاوندا ہے	ਹੋ ਵੇਂਦਾ ਹੈ ਹੋ ਜਾਵੰਦਾ ਹੈ	ہو جاندا ہے	ਹੋ ਜਾਂਦਾ ਹੈ
Sit down	بہی جُل بہی گچھ بہی جا	ਬਹੀ ਜੁਲ ਬਹੀ ਗੱਛ ਬਹੀ ਜਾ	بہہ ونج بہہ جا	ਬਹਿ ਵੰਞ ਬਹਿ ਜਾ	بہہ جا	ਬਹਿ ਜਾ
I will take him along	اُسکی وی نال گھِنی جاساں اُسکی وی نال گھِنی جُلساں	ਉਸਕੀ ਵੀ ਨਾਲ ਘਿਨੀ ਜਾਸਾਂ ਉਸਕੀ ਵੀ ਨਾਲ ਘਿਨੀ ਜੁਲਸਾਂ	اوہنُوں وی نال لے ویساں/جاساں اوہنُوں وی نال گھِن ویساں	ਓਹਨੂੰ ਵੀ ਨਾਲ ਲੈ ਵੇਸਾਂ/ਜਾਸਾਂ ਓਹਨੂੰ ਵੀ ਨਾਲ ਘਿਨ ਵੇਸਾਂ	اوہنُوں وی نال لَے جاواں گا	ਓਹਨੂੰ ਵੀ ਨਾਲ ਲੈ ਜਾਵਾਂਗਾ

The imperative for gacchṇā is both gacch and gau.

Causative verbs

Pahari-Pothwari causative verbs end with -ālnā.^[58]

English	Pahari-Pothwari	Standard Punjabi	Jatki
To cause to eat	کھوالݨا	کھواوݨا	کھواوݨا
To cause to drink	پیالݨا	پیاوݨا	پِواوݨا
To cause to bathe	نہوالݨا	نہواوݨا	نہواوݨا
To cause to wash	دھوالݨا	دھواوݨا	دھواوݨا
To cause to cry	رووالنا	رواوݨا	رواوݨا
To cause to sleep	سوالݨا	سواوݨا	سواوݨا
To cause to sit	بہالݨا	بہاوݨا	بہاوݨا
To cause to stand	اُٹھالݨا	اُٹھاوݨا	اُٹھاوݨا

*Notes

Not all causative verbs are formed like this, e.g. to play -kheṛṇā to khaṛāṇa

Words used for "Taking" and "Bringing"

Commonly observed in the Lahnda dialects is the use of Ghinṇā (گھِننا)^[59][60] and Aaṇnā (آننا)^[61][62] instead of the Eastern Punjabi words Laiṇā (لَینا) and Lyāṇā (لیانا).

Notice how Ghin āo becomes Ghini achho, and Ghin ghidā becomes Ghini ghidā in accordance with Pothwari grammar and vocabulary.

English	Jatki		Pahari-Pothwari	Hindko	Saraiki
	Shahpuri/Jhangochi	Dhanni
From tomorrow onwards, I'll also bring it for you, just cope for today.	کلّ توں میں تُہانُوں وی لیا دِتّا کرساں، اجّ گُزارہ کر لوو ਕੱਲ੍ਹ ਤੋਂ ਮੈਂ ਤੁਹਾਨੂੰ ਵੀ ਲਿਆ ਦਿੱਤਾ ਕਰਸਾਂ, ਅੱਜ ਗੁਜ਼ਾਰਾ ਕਰ ਲਵੋ	کلّ توں میں تُسانُوں وی آݨ دِتّا کریساں، اجّ گُزارہ کر گھِنو ਕੱਲ੍ਹ ਤੋਂ ਮੈਂ ਤੁਸਾਂ ਨੂੰ ਵੀ ਆਣ ਦਿੱਤਾ ਕਰੇਸਾਂ, ਅੱਜ ਗੁਜ਼ਾਰਾ ਕਰ ਘਿਨੋ	کلّ توں میں تُساں کی وی آݨی دیا کرساں، اجّ گُزارہ کری گھِنو ਕੱਲ੍ਹ ਤੋਂ ਮੈਂ ਤੁਸਾਂ ਕੀ ਵੀ ਆਣੀ ਦਿਆ ਕਰਸਾਂ, ਅੱਜ ਗੁਜ਼ਾਰਾ ਕਰੀ ਘਿਨੋ	کلّ توں میں تُساں آں وی آݨ دیا کرساں، اجّ گُزارہ کر گھِنو ਕੱਲ੍ਹ ਤੋਂ ਮੈਂ ਤੁਸਾਂ ਆਂ ਵੀ ਆਣ ਦਿਆ ਕਰਸਾਂ, ਅੱਜ ਗੁਜ਼ਾਰਾ ਕਰ ਘਿਨੋ	کلّ توں میں تُہاکُوں وی آݨ ڈِتّا کریساں، اجّ گُزارہ کر گھِنو ਕੱਲ੍ਹ ਤੋਂ ਮੈਂ ਤੁਹਾਕੂੰ ਵੀ ਆਣ ਡਿੱਤਾ ਕਰੇਸਾਂ, ਅੱਜ ਗੁਜ਼ਾਰਾ ਕਰ ਘਿਨੋ
Bring him along as well.	اوہنُوں وی نال لَے آوو ਓਹਨੂੰ ਵੀ ਨਾਲ ਲੈ ਆਵੋ	اوہنُوں وی نال گھِن آوو ਓਹਨੂੰ ਵੀ ਨਾਲ ਘਿਨ ਆਵੋ	اُسکی وی نال گھِنی اچھو ਉਸਕੀ ਵੀ ਨਾਲ ਘਿਨੀ ਅਛੋ	اُساں وی نال گھِن آؤ ਉਸਾਂ ਵੀ ਨਾਲ ਘਿਨ ਆਓ	اُوکُوں وی نال گھِن آوو ਊਕੂੰ ਵੀ ਨਾਲ ਘਿਨ ਆਵੋ
They took it from me as well	اُنھاں میرے کولُوں وی لَے لیا ਉਨ੍ਹਾਂ ਮੇਰੇ ਕੋਲੂੰ ਵੀ ਲੈ ਲਿਆ	اُنھاں مینڈھے کولُوں وی گھِن گھِدا ਉਨ੍ਹਾਂ ਮੈਂਢੇ ਕੋਲੂੰ ਵੀ ਘਿਨ ਘਿਦਾ	اُنھاں مھاڑے کولُوں وی گھِنی گھِدا ਉਨ੍ਹਾਂ ਮਹਾੜੇ ਕੋਲੂੰ ਵੀ ਘਿਨੀ ਘਿਦਾ	اُنھان مڑھے کولُوں وی گھِن گھِدا ਉਨ੍ਹਾਂ ਮੜ੍ਹੇ ਕੋਲੂੰ ਵੀ ਘਿਨ ਘਿਦਾ	اُنھاں میڈے کولُوں وی گھِن گھِدا ਉਨ੍ਹਾਂ ਮੈਂਡੇ ਕੋਲੂੰ ਵੀ ਘਿਨ ਘਿਦਾ
He is coming	اوہ لیاندا پیا ہے ਓਹ ਲਿਆਂਦਾ ਪਿਆ ਐ	اوہ اݨیدا پیا ہے ਓਹ ਅਣੇਦਾ ਪਿਆ ਐ	اوہ آݨنا پیا ہے ਓਹ ਆਣਨਾ ਪਿਆ ਐ	اوہ آݨدا پیا ہے ਓਹ ਆਣਦਾ ਪਿਆ ਐ	اوہ اݨیدا پیا ہے ਓਹ ਅਣੇਦਾ ਪਿਆ ਐ
We will also have to bring them back	اُنھاں نُوں واپس وی لیاوَݨا ہوسی ਉਨ੍ਹਾਂ ਨੂੰ ਵਾਪਿਸ ਵੀ ਲਿਆਵਣਾ ਹੋਸੀ	اُنھاں نُوں واپس وی آݨنا ہوسی ਉਨ੍ਹਾਂ ਨੂੰ ਵਾਪਿਸ ਵੀ ਆਣਨਾ ਹੋਸੀ	اُنھاں کی واپس وی آݨنا ہوسی ਉਨ੍ਹਾਂ ਕੀ ਵਾਪਿਸ ਵੀ ਆਣਨਾ ਹੋਸੀ	اُنھاں آں واپس وی آݨنا ہوسی ਉਨ੍ਹਾਂ ਆਂ ਵਾਪਿਸ ਵੀ ਆਣਨਾ ਹੋਸੀ	اُنھاں کُوں واپس وی آݨنا ہوسی ਉਨ੍ਹਾਂ ਕੂੰ ਵਾਪਿਸ ਵੀ ਆਣਨਾ ਹੋਸੀ
Eat it	کھا لَے ਖਾ ਲੈ	کھا گھِن ਖਾ ਘਿਨ	کھائی گھِن ਖਾਈ ਘਿਨ	کھا گھِن ਖਾ ਘਿਨ	کھا گھِن ਖਾ ਘਿਨ
Bring it Brought it	چا لیاؤ چا لیاندا ਚਾ ਲਿਆਓ ਚਾ ਲਿਆਂਦਾ	چا آݨو چا آندا ਚਾ ਆਣੋ ਚਾ ਆਂਦਾ	چائی آݨو چائی آندا ਚਾਈ ਆਣੋ ਚਾਈ ਆਂਦਾ	چا آݨو چا آندا ਚਾ ਆਣੋ ਚਾ ਆਂਦਾ	چا آݨو چا آندا ਚਾ ਆਣੋ ਚਾ ਆਂਦਾ
Take it Took it	چا لوو چا لیا ਚਾ ਲਵੋ ਚਾ ਲਿਆ	چا گھِنو چا گھِدا ਚਾ ਘਿਨੋ ਚਾ ਘਿਦਾ	چائی گھِنو چائی گھِدا ਚਾਈ ਘਿਨੋ ਚਾਈ ਘਿਦਾ	چا گھِنو چا گھِدا ਚਾ ਘਿਨੋ ਚਾ ਘਿਦਾ	چا گھِنو چا گھِدا ਚਾ ਘਿਨੋ ਚਾ ਘਿਦਾ
He will take him along	اوہ ایہنُوں نال لَے ویسی اوہ ایہنُوں لے جاسی ਉਹ ਇਹਨੂੰ ਨਾਲ ਲੈ ਵੇਸੀ/ਜਾਸੀ ਉਹ ਇਹਨੂੰ ਨਾਲ ਲੈ ਜਾਸੀ	اوہ ایہنُوں نال گھِن ویسی ਉਹ ਇਹਨੂੰ ਨਾਲ ਘਿਨ ਵੈਸੀ	اوہ اِسکی نال گھِنی گیسی اوہ اِسکی نال گھِنی جُلسی اوہ اِسکی نال گھِنی جاسی ਉਹ ਇਸਕੀ ਨਾਲ ਘਿਨੀ ਗੇਸੀ ਉਹ ਇਸਕੀ ਨਾਲ ਘਿਨੀ ਜੁਲਸੀ ਉਹ ਇਸਕੀ ਨਾਲ ਘਿਨੀ ਜਾਸੀ	اوہ اِساں نال گھِن جُلسی ਉਹ ਇਸਾਂ ਨਾਲ ਘਿਨ ਜੁਲਸੀ	اوہ اِیکُوں نال گھِن ویسی ਉਹ ਈਕੂੰ ਨਾਲ ਘਿਨ ਵੇਸੀ

Irregular past tense of verbs

Pahari-Pothwari generally follows the common Punjabi irregular verbs (e.g. khādhā, peetā, nahātā, dhotā, moyā, latthā, khalotā, ḍaṭṭhā, suttā, keetā, dittā, ghidā, seetā, baddhā).

Some additional forms are observed in bantā (بنتا) for banyā and khaltā (کھلتا) for khalā.

For example:

Miki sarkay apar khaltyon addhā ghantā hoi gya sā

Menu sark tey khalyā̃/khlotyā̃ addhā ghantā ho gya si

(It had been an hour since I was waiting on the road)

Chā kadū ni banti hoi ae

Chā kadū di bani hoi ae

(The tea has been ready for quite some time)

Interrogative words

English	Pahari-Pothwari	Jatki	Standard
Why	کِیاں ਕੀਆਂ	کیوں ਕਿਓਂ	کیوں ਕਿਓਂ
Where	کتھے ਕੁੱਥੇ	کِتھّے ਕਿੱਥੇ	کِتھّے ਕਿੱਥੇ
Whither	کُدھّر ਕੁੱਧਰ	کِدّے ਕਿੱਦੇ	کِدّھر ਕਿੱਧਰ
Who	کُݨ ਕੁਣ	کَوݨ ਕੌਣ	کَوݨ ਕੌਣ
What?	کے؟ ਕੇ	کیہہ / کی ਕੇਹ / ਕੀ	کی / کِیہہ ਕੀ / ਕੀਹ

Pahari-Pothwari vocabulary similarities with other Western Punjabi dialects

English	Pahari-Pothwari	Jatki	Hindko	Saraiki
Very / Much	بھو	بہُوں	بہُوں	بہُوں
Go to sleep	سئی گو	سَیں ونج	سَیں جُل	سم ونج
Alright / Okay	ہلا	ہلا	ہلا	ہلا
Boy	جاکت / جاتک	جاتک / چھوہر	جندک	چھُوہر
What is his name?	کے نا اوسنا؟	کیہ/کے ناں اُس؟	کے ناں اُس؟	کیا ناں اُس؟
Take	گھِنو	لَوو (جھنگوچی/شاہپُوری) گھِنو (دھنی)	گھِنو	گھِنو
Bring	آنو	لیاوو (جھنگوچی/شاہپُوری) آنو (دھنی)	آنو	آنو
He speaks like us	اوہ اساں آر بولنا اے	اوہ ساڈے آر بولیندا اے	اوہ اساں آر بولدا اے	اوہ ساڈے آر الیندا اے
Let's go	آ جُلِیئے	آ چلِیئے/جُلِیے	آ جُلاں	آ جُلُوں
Lift/Raise	چاؤ	چاوو	چاؤ	چاوو
Life	حیاتی	حیاتی	حیاتی	حیاتی

Notes

1. Baart (2003, p. 10) provides an estimate of 3.8 million, presumably for the population in Pakistan alone. Lothers & Lothers (2010, p. 9) estimate the Pakistani population at well over 2.5 million and the UK diaspora at over 0.5 million. The population in India is reported in Ethnologue (2017) to be about 1 million as of 2000.
2. There is no consensus among linguists or Pahari-Pothwari speakers in terms of its status as a dialect of Punjabi or a separate language entirely. For the difficulties in assigning the labels "language" and "dialect", see Shackle (1979) for Punjabi and Masica (1991, pp. 23–27) for Indo-Aryan generally.
3. According to Lothers & Lothers (2010, p. 2). Abbasi (2010, p. 104) adds as a fourth dialect the Poonchi spoken from Poonch to the Neelam Valley. Yet another classification is reportedly presented in Karnai (2007).
4. For example, according to the 1981 census report for Rawalpindi District
5. One language activist from the diaspora in Britain "[has] said that he does not give the language a single name because those who speak the language call it many different things." (Lothers & Lothers 2012, p. 3).
6. Some, at least in the British diaspora, consider this term to be a misnomer if applied to the language. (Lothers & Lothers 2012, p. 3).
7. The similarity between wordlists containing 217 items of basic vocabulary from each location. (Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 15–16)

References

1. "Pahari". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
2. Shackle 1979, pp. 200–201.
3. Hussain, Qandeel (2020-12-31). "Punjabi (India and Pakistan) – Language Snapshot". Language Documentation and Description. 19: 144. doi:10.25894/ldd71.
4. Masica 1991, p. 440.
5. Shackle 1983, p. 183.
6. Shackle 1979, p. 201: Pothohari "is often so close to Panjabi that any attempt to maintain the Lahndi scheme ought probably to reckon it as 'Lahndi merging into Panjabi'."
7. Rahman, Tariq (1995-01-01). "The Siraiki Movement in Pakistan". Language Problems and Language Planning. 19 (1): 16. doi:10.1075/lplp.19.1.01rah. ISSN 0272-2690.
8. Shams, Shammim Ara (2020). "The Impact of Dominant Languages on Regional Languages: A Case Study of English, Urdu and Shina". Pakistan Social Sciences Review. 4 (III): 1092–1106. doi:10.35484/pssr.2020(4-III)79.
9. Lothers & Lothers 2010, p. 2.
10. Lothers & Lothers 2010, p. 86. Speakers from Muzaffarabad "consider the Mirpur dialect different enough that it is difficult to understand."
11. The alternative English spellings are from Ethnologue (2017).
12. Abbasi & Asif 2010, p. 201.
13. Grierson 1919, p. 432.
14. John, Asher (2009). "Two dialects one region : a sociolinguistic approach to dialects as identity markers". CardinalScholar 1.0.
15. Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 2–3, 19, 112.
16. Lothers & Lothers 2012, pp. 12, 26. At least in terms of lexical similarity..
17. Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 2–3, 5, 19, 100.
18. Lothers & Lothers 2010, p. 44.
19. Shackle 2007, p. 114.
20. Lothers & Lothers 2012, p. 1.
21. Hussain 2015, pp. 483–84.
22. Lothers & Lothers 2010, p. 23.
23. Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 2, 5.
24. Abbasi 2010, p. 104.
25. Hindko according to Lothers & Lothers (2010, pp. 5, 39) and Dhundi according to Grierson (1919, p. 495). Pahari is reported in both sources.
26. Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 40, 126–27. The speakers of Pahari in Abbottabad District regard the Hindko of the city of Abbottabad as a different language.
27. Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 2, 40.
28. Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 2, 5, 8.
29. Grierson 1919, p. 505.
30. Grierson 1919, p. 505 and corresponding map.
31. Abbasi 2010, p. 104; Abbasi & Asif 2010, pp. 201–202
32. Lothers & Lothers 2010, sec. 3.1. The varieties surveyed here are from Bagh and Muzaffarabad.
33. Lothers & Lothers 2010, p. 24. The wordlists that form the basis of this comparison are from the variety of Neela Butt.
34. Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 24–25.
35. Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 26, 80.
36. Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 108, 110.
37. Lothers & Lothers 2010, p. 24.
38. Lothers & Lothers 2010, p. 26; Akhtar & Rehman 2007, p. 68. The conclusion is similarly based on lexical similarity and the comparison is with the Hindko of the Kaghan Valley on one hand and with the Pahari of the Murre Hills on the other.
39. A 2000 estimate reported in Ethnologue (2017)
40. Singh 2014, p. 18; Bhat 2014, ch. 1, pp. 38, 40
41. Lists of regions and settlements are found in Bhat (2014, ch. 1, pp. 40, 43–44) and Kour (2014).
42. "The Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-09-03. Retrieved 2020-04-29.
43. Kaul 2006, pp. 42, 256–8.
44. Hussain 2015.
45. Nazir, Farah. "What is the name of my language?". University of Oxford: Creative Multilingualism. Retrieved 4 August 2024.
46. "Language, England and Wales: Census 2021". Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 4 August 2024.
47. Kogan, Anton I. (2011). Potxoxari Jazyk. Tatiana I. Oranskaya and Yulia V. Mazurova and Andrej A. Kibrik and Leonid I. Kulikov and Aleksandr Y. Rusakov (eds.), Jazyki Mira: Novye Indoarijskie Jazyki: Moskva: Academia. pp. 516–527.
48. Khan, Abdul Qadir (2013). A Preliminary Study of Pahari Language and its Sound System. pp. 1–20.
49. "Lahnda Structure". lisindia.ciil.org. Retrieved 2023-06-03.
50. "Grammar and Dictionary of Western Punjabi". archive.org. p. 50. The future tense is formed by adding to the root the letter -s with the general personal endings
51. "Uth jaag ghurarry mar nhen – Bulleh Shah". Folk Punjab. Retrieved 2023-06-03.
52. "اُٹھ جاگ گُھراڑے مار نہیں – بلھے شاہ". Folk Punjab (in Punjabi). Retrieved 2023-06-03.
53. J. Wilson (1898). Western Punjabi ( Shahpur District). p. 54. me venda pyā̃, me kamm pya karendā̃.
54. Bailey, Thomas Grahame (2013). Languages of the Northern Himalayas: Being Studies In The Grammar Of Twenty-Six Himalayan Dialects. Cambridge University Press.
55. J. Wilson. Western Punjabi ( Shahpur District). p. 1"the genitive postposition (of) is nā instead of dā...These characteristics are also found in the dialects spoken In the western tehsils of the Rawalpindi District as far north as Attack, and probably in the intervening tahsils of the Jehlam District"{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
56. J. Wilson. Western Punjabi ( Shahpur District). p. 9. In the dialect of the Salt Range many nouns, and especialy monosyllables ending in a consonant, to form the absolute singular, add to the absolute form an e if masculine, and an i or u if feminine.
57. شیراز طاہر (2016). شیراز اُللغات.
58. "Salah-ud-Din Panjabi dictionary". dsal.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2023-10-26. کھوالن مصدر کھواون.
59. Singh, Maya (1895). "The Panjabi dictionary". dsal.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2023-10-21. GHINNAṈÁ ਘਿੱਨਣਾ v. a. To take
60. Grammar and dictionary of Western Panjabi, as spoken in the Shahpur district with proverbs, sayings and verses. Punjab Government Press, Lahore. 1899. p. 1. Ghinn for Le (Take).
61. A. Jukes (1900). Dictionary of the Jatki or Western Panjábi Language. p. 22. آننْڑ / Anan, v. t. To bring.
62. "Salah-ud-Din Panjabi dictionary". dsal.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2023-10-21.

Bibliography

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• Abbasi, Muhammad Gulfraz (2010). "Is It a Language Worth Researching?". Language in India. 10 (7).
• Abbasi, Muhammad Gulfraz; Asif, Saiqa Imtiaz (2010). "Dilemma of Usage and Transmission-A Sociolinguistic Investigation of Dhundi-Pahari in Pakistan". Language in India. 10 (5): 197–214. ISSN 1930-2940.
• Akhtar, Raja Nasim; Rehman, Khawaja A. (2007). "The Languages of the Neelam Valley". Kashmir Journal of Language Research. 10 (1): 65–84. ISSN 1028-6640.
• Baart, Joan L. G. (2003). Sustainable Development and the Maintenance of Pakistan's Indigenous Languages. Islamabad.
• Bhat, Javeed Ahmad (2014). Politics of Reservations: A Comparative Study of Gujjars and Paharis of Jammu and Kashmir (PhD). Aligarh Muslim University. hdl:10603/167183.
• Grierson, George A. (1919). Linguistic Survey of India. Vol. VIII, Part 1, Indo-Aryan family. North-western group. Specimens of Sindhī and Lahndā. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India.
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Further reading

• Karnai, Mian Karim Ullah (2007). Pahari aor Urdu: ik taqabali jaiza (in Urdu). Islamabad: National Language Authority.
• Nazir, Farah (2014). Light Verb Constructions in Potwari (PhD). University of Manchester.

External links

• Pahari Language Textbook for Class2
• Pahari Language Textbook for Class3
• Pahari Language Textbook for Class4
• Pahari Language Textbook for Class5
• Pahari Language Textbook for Class6
• Pahari Language Textbook for Class8 (Part A)
• Pahari Language Textbook for Class8 (Part B)