List of emperors of the Han dynasty

The emperors of the Han dynasty were the supreme heads of government during the second imperial dynasty of China; the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) followed the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and preceded the Three Kingdoms (220–265 AD). The era is conventionally divided between the Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD) and Eastern Han (25–220 AD) periods.

Western Han miniature pottery infantry (foreground) and cavalry (background); in 1990, when the tomb complex of Emperor Jing of Han (r. 157 – 141 BC) and his wife Empress Wang Zhi (d. 126 BC) was excavated north of Yangling, over 40,000 miniature pottery figures were unearthed. All of them were one-third life size, smaller than the 8,000-some fully life size soldiers of the Terracotta Army buried alongside the First Emperor of Qin. Smaller miniature figurines, on average 60 centimeters (24 in) in height, have also been found in various royal Han tombs where they were placed to guard the deceased tomb occupants in their afterlife.^[1]

The Han dynasty was founded by the peasant rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gao (r. 202 –195 BC) or Gaodi. The longest reigning emperor of the dynasty was Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BC), or Wudi, who reigned for 54 years. The dynasty was briefly interrupted by the Xin dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang, but he was killed during a rebellion on 6 October 23 AD.^[2] The Han dynasty was reestablished by Liu Xiu, known posthumously as Emperor Guangwu (r. 25–57 AD) or Guangwu Di, who claimed the throne on 5 August 25 AD.^[3][4] The last Han emperor, Emperor Xian (r. 189–220 AD), was a puppet monarch of Chancellor Cao Cao (155–220 AD), who dominated the court and was made King of Wei.^[5] On 11 December 220, Cao's son Pi usurped the throne as Emperor Wen of Wei (r. 220–226 AD) and ended the Han dynasty.^[6]

The emperor was the supreme head of government.^[7] He appointed all of the highest-ranking officials in central, provincial, commandery, and county administrations.^[8] He also functioned as a lawgiver, the highest court judge, commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and high priest of the state-sponsored religious cults.^[9]

Naming conventions

Emperor

Emperor Guangwu of Han (r. 25–57 AD), as depicted by the Tang artist Yan Liben (600–673 AD)

A gilded bronze handle (with traces of red pigment) in the shape of a dragon's head, made during the Eastern Han; depending on circumstance, the dragon could be a symbol of either good or bad omen for the Han emperors.^[10]

In ancient China, the rulers of the Shang (c. 1600 – c. 1050 BC) and Zhou (c. 1050 – 256 BC) dynasties were referred to as kings (王 wang).^[11] By the time of the Zhou dynasty, they were also referred to as Sons of Heaven (天子 Tianzi).^[11] By 221 BC, the King of Qin, Ying Zheng, conquered and united all the Warring States of ancient China. To elevate himself above the Shang and Zhou kings of old, he accepted the new title of emperor (皇帝 huangdi) and is known to posterity as the First Emperor of Qin (Qin Shi Huang). The new title of emperor was created by combining the titles for the Three Sovereigns (Sanhuang) and Five Emperors (Wudi) from Chinese mythology.^[12] This title was used by each successive ruler of China until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911.^[13]

Posthumous, temple, and era names

From the Shang to Sui (581–618 AD) dynasties, Chinese rulers (both kings and emperors) were referred to by their posthumous names in records and historical texts.^[13] Temple names, first used during the reign of Emperor Jing of Han (r. 157–141 BC), were used exclusively in later records and historical texts when referring to emperors who reigned during the Tang (618–907 AD), Song (960–1279 AD), and Yuan (1271–1368 AD) dynasties.^[14] During the Ming (1368–1644 AD) and Qing (1644–1911 AD) dynasties, a single era name was used for each emperor's reign and became the preferred way to refer to Ming and Qing emperors in historical texts.^[14]

Use of the era name was formally adopted during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BC), yet its origins can be traced back further. The oldest method of recording years—which had existed since the Shang—set the first year of a ruler's reign as year one.^[14] When an emperor died, the first year of a new reign period would begin.^[14] This system was changed by the 4th century BC when the first year of a new reign period did not begin until the first day of the lunar New Year following a ruler's death.^[14] When Duke Huiwen of Qin assumed the title of king in 324 BC, he changed the year count of his reign back to the first year.^[14] For his newly adopted calendar established in 163 BC, Emperor Wen of Han (r. 180–157 BC) also set the year count of his reign back to the beginning.^[15]

Since six was considered a lucky number, Han Emperors Jing and Wu changed the year count of their reigns back to the beginning every six years.^[15] Since every six-year period was successively marked as yuannian (元年), eryuan (二元), sanyuan (三元), and so forth, this system was considered too cumbersome by the time it reached the fifth cycle wuyuan sannian (五元三年) in 114 BC.^[15] In that year a government official suggested that the Han court retrospectively rename every "beginning" with new characters, a reform Emperor Wu accepted in 110 BC.^[16] Since Emperor Wu had just performed the religious feng (封) sacrifice at Mount Taishan, he named the new era yuanfeng (元封). This event is regarded as the formal establishment of era names in Chinese history.^[16] Emperor Wu changed the era name once more when he established the 'Great Beginning' (太初 Taichu) calendar in 104 BC.^[17] From this point until the end of Western Han, the court established a new era name every four years of an emperor's reign. By Eastern Han there was no set interval for establishing new era names, which were often introduced for political reasons and celebrating auspicious events.^[17]

Regents and empress dowagers

The story of Jin Midi. Wu Liang shrines, Jiaxiang, Shandong province, China, 2nd century AD; an ink rubbing of an Eastern-Han stone-carved relief

At times, especially when an infant emperor was placed on the throne, a regent, often the empress dowager or one of her male relatives, would assume the duties of the emperor until he reached his majority. Sometimes the empress dowager's faction—the consort clan—was overthrown in a coup d'état. For example, Empress Lü Zhi (d. 180 BC) was the de facto ruler of the court during the reigns of the child emperors Qianshao (r. 188–184 BC) and Houshao (r. 184–180 BC).^[18] Her faction was overthrown during the Lü Clan Disturbance of 180 BC and Liu Heng was named emperor (posthumously known as Emperor Wen).^[19] Before Emperor Wu died in 87 BC, he had invested Huo Guang (d. 68 BC), Jin Midi (d. 86 BC), and Shangguan Jie (上官桀)(d. 80 BC) with the power to govern as regents over his successor Emperor Zhao of Han (r. 87–74 BC). Huo Guang and Shangguan Jie were both grandfathers to Empress Shangguan (d. 37 BC), wife of Emperor Zhao, while the ethnically-Xiongnu Jin Midi was a former slave who had worked in an imperial stable. After Jin died and Shangguan was executed for treason, Huo Guang was the sole ruling regent. Following his death, the Huo-family faction was overthrown by Emperor Xuan of Han (r. 74–49 BC), in revenge for Huo Guang poisoning his wife Empress Xu Pingjun (d. 71 BC) so that he could marry Huo's daughter Empress Huo Chengjun (d. 54 BC).^[20]

Since regents and empress dowagers were not officially counted as emperors of the Han dynasty, they are excluded from the list of emperors below.

List of emperors

See also: Han emperors family tree

Below is a complete list of emperors of the Han dynasty, including their personal, posthumous, and era names. Excluded from the list are de facto rulers such as regents and empress dowagers.

Han dynasty sovereigns
Sovereign	Personal name		Reigned from	Reigned until	Posthumous name[lower-alpha 1]		Temple name		Era name		Range of years[lower-alpha 2]
Western Han dynasty (202 BC–9 AD)
Emperor Gaozu	Liu Bang	劉邦	28 February[22] 202 BC	1 June[23] 195 BC[24]	Emperor Gao	高皇帝	Taizu	太祖	did not exist[25]
Emperor Hui	Liu Ying	劉盈	23 June[26] 195 BC	26 September[27] 188 BC[28]	Emperor Xiaohui	孝惠皇帝	-		did not exist[25]
Emperor Qianshao	Liu Gong	劉恭	19 October[27] 188 BC	15 June[29] 184 BC[30]	did not exist		-		did not exist[25]
Emperor Houshao	Liu Hong	劉弘	15 June[29] 184 BC	14 November[31] 180 BC[30]	did not exist		-		did not exist[25]
Emperor Wen	Liu Heng	劉恆	14 November[26] 180 BC	6 July[32] 157 BC[33]	Emperor Xiaowen	孝文皇帝	Taizong	太宗	Qianyuan	前元	179–164 BC[34]
									Houyuan	後元	163–156 BC[34]
Emperor Jing	Liu Qi	劉啟	14 July[35] 157 BC	9 March[36] 141 BC[33]	Emperor Xiaojing	孝景皇帝	-		Qianyuan	前元	156–150 BC[37]
									Zhongyuan	中元	149–143 BC[37]
									Houyuan	後元	143–141 BC[37]
Emperor Wu	Liu Che	劉徹	10 March[26] 141 BC	29 March[38] 87 BC[39]	Emperor Xiaowu	孝武皇帝	Shizong	世宗	Jianyuan	建元	141–135 BC[40]
									Yuanguang	元光	134–129 BC[40]
									Yuanshuo	元朔	128–123 BC[40]
									Yuanshou	元狩	122–117 BC[40]
									Yuanding	元鼎	116–111 BC[40]
									Yuanfeng	元封	110–105 BC[40]
									Taichu	太初	104–101 BC[40]
									Tianhan	天漢	100–97 BC[40]
									Taishi	太始	96–93 BC[40]
									Zhenghe	征和	92–89 BC[40]
									Houyuan	後元	88–87 BC[40]
Emperor Zhao	Liu Fuling	劉弗陵	30 March[35] 87 BC	5 June[35] 74 BC[41]	Emperor Xiaozhao	孝昭皇帝	-		Shiyuan	始元	86–80 BC[42]
									Yuanfeng	元鳳	80–75 BC[42]
									Yuanping	元平	74 BC[42]
Marquis of Haihun	Liu He	劉賀	18 July[35] 74 BC	14 August[35] 74 BC[30]	did not exist		-		Yuanping	元平	74 BC[43]
Emperor Xuan	Liu Bingyi	劉病已	10 September[35] 74 BC	10 January[32] 49 BC[41]	Emperor Xiaoxuan	孝宣皇帝	Zhongzong	中宗	Benshi	本始	73–70 BC[44]
									Dijie	地節	69–66 BC[44]
									Yuankang	元康	65–61 BC[44]
									Shenjue	神爵	61–58 BC[44]
									Wufeng	五鳳	57–54 BC[44]
									Ganlu	甘露	53–50 BC[44]
									Huanglong	黃龍	49 BC[44]
Emperor Yuan	Liu Shi	劉奭	29 January[35] 49 BC	8 July[45] 33 BC[46]	Emperor Xiaoyuan	孝元皇帝	Gaozong	高宗	Chuyuan	初元	48–44 BC[47]
									Yongguang	永光	43–39 BC[47]
									Jianzhao	建昭	38–34 BC[47]
									Jingning	竟寧	33 BC[47]
Emperor Cheng	Liu Ao	劉驁	4 August[48] 33 BC	17 April[49] 7 BC[46]	Emperor Xiaocheng	孝成皇帝	Tongzong	統宗	Jianshi	建始	32–28 BC[50]
									Heping	河平	28–25 BC[50]
									Yangshuo	陽朔	24–21 BC[50]
									Hongjia	鴻嘉	20–17 BC[50]
									Yongshi	永始	16–13 BC[50]
									Yuanyan	元延	12–9 BC[50]
									Suihe	綏和	8–7 BC[50]
Emperor Ai	Liu Xin	劉欣	7 May[51] 7 BC	15 August[49] 1 BC[46]	Emperor Xiao'ai	孝哀皇帝	-		Jianping	建平	6–3 BC[52]
									Yuanshou	元壽	2–1 BC[52]
Emperor Ping	Liu Kan	劉衎	17 October[53] 1 BC	3 February[54] 6 AD[46]	Emperor Xiaoping	孝平皇帝	Yuanzong	元宗	Yuanshi	元始	1–5 AD[55]
Ruzi Ying[lower-alpha 3]	Liu Ying	劉嬰	17 April[56] 6 AD	10 January[56] 9 AD[46]	did not exist		-		Jushe	居攝	6–8 AD[57]
									Chushi	初始	9 AD
Xin dynasty (9–23 AD)
Continuation of Han dynasty
Gengshi Emperor	Liu Xuan	劉玄	11 March[58] 23 AD	November[58] 25 AD[59]	King Wushun of Huaiyang	淮陽王	Yanzong	延宗	Gengshi	更始	23–25 AD[60]
Eastern Han dynasty (25–220 AD)
Emperor Guangwu	Liu Xiu	劉秀	5 August[61] 25 AD	29 March[62] 57 AD[63]	Emperor Guangwu	光武皇帝	Shizu	世祖	Jianwu	建武	25–56 AD[64]
									Jianwu- zhongyuan	建武中元	56–57 AD[64]
Emperor Ming	Liu Zhuang	劉莊	29 March[61] 57 AD	5 September[62] 75 AD[65]	Emperor Xiaoming	孝明皇帝	Xianzong	顯宗	Yongping	永平	57–75 AD[66]
Emperor Zhang	Liu Da	劉炟	5 September[61] 75 AD	9 April[62] 88 AD[67]	Emperor Xiaozhang	孝章皇帝	Suzong	肃宗	Jianchu	建初	76–84 AD[68]
									Yuanhe	元和	84–87 AD[68]
									Zhanghe	章和	87–88 AD[68]
Emperor He	Liu Zhao	劉肇	9 April[61] 88 AD	13 February[62] 106 AD[69]	Emperor Xiaohe	孝和皇帝	Muzong	穆宗	Yongyuan	永元	89–105 AD[70]
									Yuanxing	元興	105 AD[71]
Emperor Shang	Liu Long	劉隆	13 February[61] 106 AD	21 September[62] 106 AD[72]	Emperor Xiaoshang	孝殤皇帝	-		Yanping	延平	106 AD[73]
Emperor An	Liu Hu	劉祜	23 September[61] 106 AD	30 April[62] 125 AD[74]	Emperor Xiao'an	孝安皇帝	Gongzong	恭宗	Yǒngchū	永初	107–113 AD[75]
									Yuanchu	元初	114–120 AD[75]
									Yongning	永寧	120–121 AD[75]
									Jianguang	建光	121–122 AD[75]
									Yanguang	延光	122–125 AD[75]
Marquess of Beixiang	Liu Yi	劉懿	18 May[61] 125 AD	10 December[62] 125 AD[76]	did not exist		-		Yanguang	延光	125 AD[77]
Emperor Shun	Liu Bao	劉保	16 December[61] 125 AD	20 September[62] 144 AD[78]	Emperor Xiaoshun	孝順皇帝	Jingzong	敬宗	Yongjian	永建	126–132 AD[79]
									Yangjia	陽嘉	132–135 AD[79]
									Yonghe	永和	136–141 AD[79]
									Han'an	漢安	142–144 AD[79]
									Jiankang	建康	144 AD[79]
Emperor Chong	Liu Bing	劉炳	20 September[61] 144 AD	15 February[62] 145 AD[80]	Emperor Xiaochong	孝沖皇帝	-		Yongxi	永熹	145 AD[81]
Emperor Zhi	Liu Zuan	劉纘	6 March[61] 145 AD	26 July[62] 146 AD[80]	Emperor Xiaozhi	孝質皇帝	-		Benchu	本初	146 AD[81]
Emperor Huan	Liu Zhi	劉志	1 August[61] 146 AD	25 January[62] 168 AD[82]	Emperor Xiaohuan	孝桓皇帝	Weizong	威宗	Jianhe	建和	147–149 AD[83]
									Heping	和平	150 AD[83]
									Yuanjia	元嘉	151–153 AD[83]
									Yongxing	永興	153–154 AD[83]
									Yongshou	永壽	155–158 AD[83]
									Yanxi	延熹	158–167 AD[83]
									Yongkang	永康	167 AD[83]
Emperor Ling	Liu Hong	劉宏	17 February[61] 168 AD	13 May[62] 189 AD[84]	Emperor Xiaoling	孝靈皇帝	-		Jianning	建寧	168–172 AD[85]
									Xiping	熹平	172–178 AD[85]
									Guanghe	光和	178–184 AD[85]
									Zhongping	中平	184–189 AD[85]
Emperor Shao	Liu Bian	劉辯	15 May[61] 189 AD	28 September[62] 189 AD[76]	King Huai of Hongnong	少皇帝	-		Guangxi	光熹	189 AD[86]
									Zhaoning	昭寧	189 AD[86]
Emperor Xian	Liu Xie	劉協	28 September[61] 189 AD	11 December[lower-alpha 4] 220 AD[87]	Emperor Xiaoxian	孝獻皇帝	-		Yonghan	永漢	189 AD[88]
									Chuping	初平	190–193 AD[88]
									Xingping	興平	194–195 AD[88]
									Jian'an	建安	196–220 AD[88]
									Yankang	延康	220 AD[88]

Timeline

Legend:

• Orange denotes Western Han monarchs
• Teal denotes Han monarchs following the collapse of the Xin dynasty but prior to the Eastern Han
• Pink denotes Eastern Han monarchs

See also

• Dynasties in Chinese history
• List of Chinese monarchs

References

Notes

1. Besides Liu Bang and Liu Xiu, the word Xiao (孝 "filial") was prefixed to all posthumous names, although it is usually omitted by scholars. The word huangdi (皇帝 emperor) is also abbreviated. Commonly only the second character is used; e.g., Wudi (武帝, Emperor Wu) for Xiaowu Huangdi (孝武皇帝).^[21]
2. The years of the Chinese lunisolar calendar do not correspond exactly with the years given in the column for era names. Some years given in the table also belong to two reign periods because some era names were adopted before the beginning of the following year.
3. Ruzi was prince, rather than emperor of Han. Officially, the throne of emperor of Han was vacant during 6 AD to 9 AD.
4. de Crespigny, Rafe (2010). A Biography of Cao Cao 155-220 AD. Brill. p. 450. ISBN 978-90-04-18830-3. On 11 December [...] Cao Cao's son and successor Cao Pi received the abdication of the last emperor of Han. [...] Some authorities give the date of abdication as 25 November [...] This is the date upon which Emperor Xian issued an edict acalling upon Cao Pi to take the throne, but the ceremonial transfer of sovereignty was carried out two weeks later

Citations

1. Paludan 1998, pp. 34–36.
2. de Crespigny 2006, p. 568.
3. Hymes 2000, p. 36.
4. Beck 1990, p. 21.
5. Beck 1990, pp. 354–355.
6. Hymes 2000, p. 16.
7. de Crespigny 2006; Bielenstein 1980, p. 143; Hucker 1975, pp. 149–150.
8. Wang 1949, pp. 141–142.
9. Wang 1949, pp. 141–143; Ch'ü 1972, p. 71; de Crespigny 2006, pp. 1216–1217.
10. de Visser 2003, pp. 43–49.
11. Wilkinson 1998, p. 105.
12. Wilkinson 1998, pp. 105–106.
13. Wilkinson 1998, p. 106.
14. Wilkinson 1998.
15. Wilkinson 1998, p. 177; Sato 1991, p. 278.
16. Wilkinson 1998, p. 177; Sato 1991, pp. 278–279.
17. Wilkinson 1998, p. 178.
18. Loewe & Twitchett 1986, p. 135; Hansen 2000, pp. 115–116.
19. Loewe & Twitchett 1986, pp. 136–137; Torday 1997, p. 78.
20. Loewe & Twitchett 1986, pp. 174–187; Huang 1988, p. 44–46.
21. Dubs 1945, p. 29.
22. Barbieri-Low & Yates 2015, pp. xix–xx; Hulsewé 1995, pp. 226–230.
23. Grand Scribe's Records, p. 108.
24. Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range come from Paludan (1998), p. 28
25. Bo Yang 1977, pp. 433–443.
26. Barbieri-Low & Yates 2015, pp. xix–xx; Hulsewé 1995, pp. 226–230; Vervoorn 1990, pp. 311–312.
27. Grand Scribe's Records, pp. 114–115.
28. Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range come from Paludan (1998), p. 28, 31
29. Grand Scribe's Records, p. 122.
30. Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range come from Loewe & Twitchett (1986), p. xxxix
31. Grand Scribe's Records, pp. 136.
32. Vervoorn 1990, p. 312.
33. Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range come from Paludan (1998), 28, 33.
34. Bo Yang (1977), 444–447.
35. Barbieri-Low & Yates 2015, pp. xix–xx; Vervoorn 1990, p. 312.
36. Grand Scribe's Records, p. 213.
37. Bo Yang (1977), 447–452.
38. Hymes 2000, p. 11; Hulsewé 1995, pp. 226–230.
39. Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range come from Paludan (1998), 28, 36 and Loewe (2000), 273–280.
40. Bo Yang (1977), 452–471.
41. Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range come from Paludan (1998), 40.
42. Bo Yang (1977), 471–473.
43. Bo Yang (1977), 473.
44. Bo Yang (1977), 473–480.
45. Loewe & Twitchett 1986, p. 225.
46. Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 40, 42.
47. Bo Yang (1977), 481–484.
48. Loewe & Twitchett 1986, p. 225; Vervoorn 1990, p. 313; Barbieri-Low & Yates 2015, pp. xx.
49. Loewe & Twitchett 1986, p. 227; Vervoorn 1990, p. 313.
50. Bo Yang (1977), 485–489.
51. Barbieri-Low & Yates 2015, pp. xx; Vervoorn 1990, p. 312.
52. Bo Yang (1977), 490.
53. Barbieri-Low & Yates 2015, pp. xx; Hymes 2000, p. 12; Vervoorn 1990, p. 313.
54. Hymes 2000, p. 13; Vervoorn 1990, p. 313.
55. Bo Yang (1977), 495. While traditional sources do not give an exact date when the Yuanshi era was announced, it was implied that the first year of Yuanshi did not start until the first month of the lunar calendar — ergo, in 1 AD. See, e.g., Ban Gu, Book of Han, vol. 12.
56. Loewe & Twitchett 1986, p. 231; Vervoorn 1990, p. 313.
57. Bo Yang (1977), 495–496.
58. Loewe & Twitchett 1986, pp. 246–251; Vervoorn 1990, p. 313.
59. Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from de Crespigny (2007), 558–560.
60. Bo Yang (1977) 500–501.
61. Barbieri-Low & Yates 2015, pp. xx; de Crespigny 2006, p. xxxiii; Loewe & Twitchett 1986, pp. xl–xli.
62. Loewe & Twitchett 1986, pp. xl–xli; de Crespigny 2006, p. xxxiii.
63. Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 44 and de Crespigny (2006), 557–566.
64. Bo Yang (1977), 501–509.
65. Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 44, 49 and de Crespigny (2007), 604–609.
66. Bo Yang (1977), 509–513.
67. Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 44, 49 and de Crespigny (2007), 495–500.
68. Bo Yang (1977), 514–516.
69. Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 50 and de Crespigny (2007), 588–592.
70. Bo Yang (1977), 517–523.
71. Bo Yang (1977), 523.
72. Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 50 and de Crespigny (2007), 531.
73. Bo Yang (1977), 524.
74. Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 50 and de Crespigny (2007), 580–583.
75. Bo Yang (1977), 524–529.
76. Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Twitchett and Loewe (1986), xl.
77. Bo Yang (1977), 529.
78. Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 50–51 and de Crespigny (2007), 473–478.
79. Bo Yang (1977), 530–534.
80. Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 50–51.
81. Bo Yang (1977), 535.
82. Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 50–51 and de Crespigny (2007), 595–603
83. Bo Yang (1977), 535–541.
84. Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 50, 52 and de Crespigny (2007), 511–517.
85. Bo Yang (1977), 541–547.
86. Bo Yang (1977), 547
87. Latin spelling, Chinese characters, and date range from Paludan (1998), 50, 55.
88. Bo Yang (1977), 547–564.

Sources

• Barbieri-Low, Anthony J.; Yates, Robin D.S. (2015). "Recognized Rulers of the Qin and Han Dynasties and the Xin Period". Law, State, and Society in Early Imperial China. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-30053-8.
• Beck, B. J. Mansvelt (1990). The Treatises of Later Han: Their Author, Sources, Contents, and Place in Chinese Historiography. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-08895-5.
• Bielenstein, Hans (1980). The Bureaucracy of Han Times. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-22510-6.
• Bo Yang (1977). 中國歷史年表 [Timeline of Chinese History]. Sing-Kuang Book Company Ltd.
• Ch'ü, T'ung-tsu (1972). Han Dynasty China: Volume 1: Han Social Structure. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-95068-6.
• de Crespigny, Rafe (2006). "Chronology Part II: Later Han". A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD). Leiden: Koninklijke Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0.
• Dubs, Homer H. (1945). "Chinese Imperial Designations". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 65 (1): 26–33. doi:10.2307/594743. JSTOR 594743.
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External links

• Chinese History - Han Dynasty 漢 (206 BC-8 AD, 25–220) emperors and rulers, from Chinaknowledge.de
• Media related to Han Dynasty at Wikimedia Commons