The 48-base pair variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) in exon 3 range from 2 to 11 repeats.[16] Dopamine is more potent at the D4 receptor with 2 allelic repeat or 7 allelic repeats than the variant with 4 allelic repeats.[22]
DRD4-7R, the 7-repeat (7R) variant of DRD4 (DRD4 7-repeat polymorphism), has been linked to a susceptibility for developing ADHD in several meta-analyses and other psychological traits and disorders.[23][24] Adults and children with the DRD4 7-repeat polymorphism show variations in auditory-evoked gamma oscillations, which may be related to attention processing.[25][26]
The frequency of the alleles varies greatly between populations, e.g., the 7-repeat version has high incidence in America and low in Asia.[27] "Long" versions of polymorphisms are the alleles with 6 to 10 repeats. 7R appears to react less strongly to dopamine molecules.[28]
The 48-base pair VNTR has been the subject of much speculation about its evolution and role in human behaviors cross-culturally. The 7R allele appears to have been selected for about 40,000 years ago.[27] In 1999 Chen and colleagues[29] observed that populations who migrated farther in the past 30,000 to 1,000 years ago had a higher frequency of 7R/long alleles. They also showed that nomadic populations had higher frequencies of 7R alleles than sedentary ones. More recently it was observed that the health status of nomadic Ariaal men was higher if they had 7R alleles. However, in recently sedentary (non-nomadic) Ariaal those with 7R alleles seemed to have slightly deteriorated health.[30]
Despite early findings of an association between the DRD4 48bp VNTR and novelty seeking (a normal characteristic of exploratory and excitable people),[31][32] a 2008 meta-analysis compared 36 published studies of novelty seeking and the polymorphism and found no effect. Results are consistent with novelty-seeking behavior being a complex trait associated with many genes, and the variance attributable to DRD4 by itself being very small. The meta-analysis of 11 studies did find that another polymorphism in the gene, the -521C/T, showed an association with novelty seeking.[21] While human results are not strong, research in animals has suggested stronger associations [33][34][35][36][37][38] and new evidence suggests that human encroachment may exert selection pressure in favor of DRD4 variants associated with novelty seeking.[39][clarification needed]
Several studies have shown that agonists that activate the D4 receptor increase working memory performance and fear acquisition in monkeys and rodents according to a U-shaped dose response curve.[40][41][42] However, antagonists of the D4 receptor reverse stress-induced or drug-induced working memory deficits.[43][44]Gamma oscillations, which may be correlated with cognitive processing, can be increased by D4R agonists, but are not significantly reduced by D4R antagonists.[45][46][47]
Several studies have suggested that parenting may affect the cognitive development of children with the 7-repeat allele of DRD4.[39] Parenting that has maternal sensitivity, mindfulness, and autonomy–support at 15 months was found to alter children's executive functions at 18 to 20 months.[39] Children with poorer quality parenting were more impulsive and sensation seeking than those with higher quality parenting.[39] Higher quality parenting was associated with better executive control in 4-year-olds.[39]
Chemical structures of representative D4-preferring ligands.
FAUC F41: inverse agonist, subtype selectivity of more than 3 orders of magnitude over D2 and D3[56][62]
Michael Connelly’s 2020 crime novel Fair Warning (ISBN 978-0-316-53942-5) revolves around a serial killer who uses DNA profiles obtained on the Dark Web to target female victims, specifically those whose DRD4 profiles allegedly make them more susceptible to risk taking and sexual promiscuity.
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Asghari V, Sanyal S, Buchwaldt S, Paterson A, Jovanovic V, Van Tol HH (September 1995). "Modulation of intracellular cyclic AMP levels by different human dopamine D4 receptor variants". Journal of Neurochemistry. 65 (3): 1157–65. doi:10.1046/j.1471-4159.1995.65031157.x. PMID7643093. S2CID23092115.
Hejjas K, Vas J, Topal J, Szantai E, Ronai Z, Szekely A, Kubinyi E, Horvath Z, Sasvari-Szekely M, Miklosi A (December 2007). "Association of polymorphisms in the dopamine D4 receptor gene and the activity-impulsivity endophenotype in dogs". Animal Genetics. 38 (6): 629–33. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2052.2007.01657.x. PMID17986156.
Nakazawa S, Murai T, Miyauchi M, Kotani M, Ikeda K (September 2015). "Behavioral and neurophysiological effects of Ro 10-5824, a dopamine D4 receptor partial agonist, in common marmosets". Psychopharmacology. 232 (17): 3287–95. doi:10.1007/s00213-015-3978-y. PMID26041337. S2CID17141380.
Cowart M, Latshaw SP, Bhatia P, Daanen JF, Rohde J, Nelson SL, Patel M, Kolasa T, Nakane M, Uchic ME, Miller LN, Terranova MA, Chang R, Donnelly-Roberts DL, Namovic MT, Hollingsworth PR, Martino BR, Lynch JJ, Sullivan JP, Hsieh GC, Moreland RB, Brioni JD, Stewart AO (July 2004). "Discovery of 2-(4-pyridin-2-ylpiperazin-1-ylmethyl)-1H-benzimidazole (ABT-724), a dopaminergic agent with a novel mode of action for the potential treatment of erectile dysfunction". Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 47 (15): 3853–64. doi:10.1021/jm030505a. PMID15239663.
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"Dopamine Receptors: D4". IUPHAR Database of Receptors and Ion Channels. International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. Archived from the original on 5 March 2012. Retrieved 4 December 2008.