Confidence

Several terms redirect here. For other uses, see Confidence (disambiguation).

Confidence is the feeling of belief or trust that a person or thing is reliable.^[1] Self-confidence is trust in oneself. Self-confidence involves a positive belief that one can generally accomplish what one wishes to do in the future.^[2] Self-confidence is not the same as self-esteem, which is an evaluation of one's worth. Self-confidence is related to self-efficacy—belief in one's ability to accomplish a specific task or goal.^[3][4] Confidence can be a self-fulfilling prophecy, as those without it may fail because they lack it, and those with it may succeed because they have it rather than because of an innate ability or skill.

History

Ideas about the causes and effects of self-confidence have appeared in English-language publications describing characteristics of a sacrilegious attitude toward God,^[5] the character of the British empire,^[6] and the culture of colonial-era American society.^[7]

In 1890, the philosopher William James in his Principles of Psychology wrote, "Believe what is in the line of your needs, for only by such belief is the need fulfilled... Have faith that you can successfully make it, and your feet are nerved to its accomplishment".^{[full citation needed]}

With World War I, psychologists praised self-confidence as greatly decreasing nervous tension, allaying fear, and ridding the battlefield of terror; they argued that soldiers who cultivated a strong and healthy body would also acquire greater self-confidence while fighting.^[8] At the height of the temperance movement of the 1920s, psychologists associated self-confidence in men with remaining at home and taking care of the family when they were not working.^[9] During the Great Depression, academics Philip Eisenberg and Paul Lazarsfeld wrote that a sudden negative change in one's circumstances, especially a loss of a job, could lead to decreased self-confidence, but more commonly if the jobless person believes the fault of his unemployment is his. They also noted how if individuals do not have a job long enough, they become apathetic and lose all self-confidence.^[10]

In 1943, American psychologist Abraham Maslow argued in his paper "A Theory of Human Motivation" that an individual is only motivated to acquire self-confidence (one component of "esteem") after achieving what they need for physiological survival, safety, and love and belonging. He claimed that satisfaction with self-esteem led to feelings of self-confidence that, once attained, led to a desire for "self-actualization".^[11] As material standards of most people rapidly rose in developed countries after World War II and fulfilled their material needs, a plethora of widely cited academic research about confidence and related concepts like self-esteem and self-efficacy emerged.^[12]

Research

Measures

One of the earliest measures of self-confidence used a 12-point scale, ranging from a minimum score characterizing someone who is "timid and self-distrustful, shy, never makes decisions, self-effacing" to a maximum score characterizing someone who is "able to make decisions, absolutely confident and sure of his own decisions and opinions".^[13] Some researchers have measured self-confidence as a simple construct divided into affective and cognitive components: anxiety as an affective aspect and self-evaluations of proficiency as a cognitive component.^[14] Other researchers have used body language proxies, rather than self-reports, to measure self-confidence by having examiners measure on a scale of 1 to 5 the subject's body language such as eye contact, fidgeting, posture, facial expressions, and gestures.^[15]

Some methods measure self-esteem and self-confidence in various aspects or activities, such as speaking in public spaces, academic performance, physical appearance, romantic relationships, social interactions, and athletic ability.^[16][17] In sports, researchers have measured athletes' confidence about winning upcoming matches^[18] and how sensitive respondents' self-confidence is to performance and negative feedback.^[19]

Abraham Maslow and others have emphasized the need to distinguish between self-confidence as a generalized personality characteristic and self-confidence concerning a specific task, ability, or challenge (i.e., self-efficacy). The term "self-confidence" typically refers to a general personality trait— in contrast, "self-efficacy" is defined by psychologist Albert Bandura as a "belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task".^[20]

Factors correlated with self-confidence

Various factors within and beyond an individual's control may affect their self-confidence. An individual's self-confidence can vary in different environments, such as at home or at school, and concerning different types of relationships and situations.^[21] When people attribute their success to a matter under their control, they are less likely to be confident about being successful in the future. If someone attributes their failure to a factor beyond their control, they are more likely to be confident about succeeding in the future.^[22] If a person believes they failed to achieve a goal because of a factor that was beyond their control, they are more likely to be more self-confident that they can achieve the goal in the future.^[23] One's self-confidence often increases as one satisfactorily completes particular activities.^[24] American social psychologist Leon Festinger found that self-confidence in an individual's ability may only rise or fall when that individual can compare themselves to others who are roughly similar, in a competitive environment.^[25]

A person can possess self-confidence in their ability to complete a specific task (self-efficacy)—e.g. cook a good meal or write a good novel—even though they may lack general self-confidence, or conversely be self-confident though they lack the self-efficacy to achieve a particular task. These two types of self-confidence are, however, correlated with each other, and for this reason, can be easily conflated.^[26]

Social psychologists have found self-confidence to be correlated with other psychological variables including saving money,^[27] influencing others,^[28] and being a responsible student.^[29] Self-confidence affects interest, enthusiasm, and self-regulation.^[30] Self-confidence is important for accomplishing goals and improving performance.^[31] Marketing researchers have found that the general self-confidence of a person is negatively correlated with their level of anxiety.^[32] Self-confidence increases a person's general well-being^[33] and one's motivation^[34] which often increases performance.^[35] It also increases one's ability to deal with stress and mental health.^[36] The more self-confident an individual is, the less likely they are to conform to the judgments of others.^[37] Higher confidence is correlated with individuals setting higher goals. When people face feelings of discontent because they do not accomplish a certain goal, people who have higher self-confidence may become even more persistent in accomplishing their goals, whereas those with low self-confidence are more prone to giving up quickly.^[38][39] Albert Bandura argued that a person's perceived confidence indicates capability. If people do not believe that they are capable of coping, they experience disruption which lowers their confidence about their performance.^[40] Salespeople who are high in self-confidence tend to set higher goals for themselves, which makes them more likely to stay employed,^[41] yield higher revenues, and generate higher customer service satisfaction.^[42] In certain fields of medical practice, patients experience a lack of self-confidence during the recovery period. This is commonly referred to as DSF or defectum sui fiducia from the Latin for lack of self-confidence. This can be the case after a stroke, when the patient refrains from using a weaker lower limb due to fear of it not being strong enough.^[43]

On the overconfidence effect, Martin Hilbert argues that confidence bias can be explained by a noisy conversion of objective evidence into subjective estimates, where noise is defined as the mixing of memories during the observing and remembering process.^[44] Dominic D. P. Johnson and James H. Fowler write that "overconfidence maximizes individual fitness and populations tend to become overconfident, as long as benefits from contested resources are sufficiently large compared with the cost of competition".^[45] In studies of implicit self-esteem, researchers have found that people may consciously overreport their levels of self-esteem.^[46] Inaccurate self-evaluation is commonly observed in healthy populations. In the extreme, large differences between one's self-perception and one's actual behaviour are a hallmark of several disorders that have important implications for understanding treatment-seeking and compliance.^[47] Overconfidence supports delusional thinking, such as frequently occurs in individuals with schizophrenia.^[48]

Whether a person, in making a decision, seeks out additional sources of information depends on their level of self-confidence specific to that area. As the complexity of a decision increases, a person is more likely to be influenced by another person and seek out additional information.^[2] Several psychologists suggest that self-confident people are more willing to examine evidence that both supports and contradicts their attitudes. Meanwhile, people who are less self-confident and more defensive may prefer attitudinal information over information that challenges their perspectives.^[49] When individuals with low self-confidence receive feedback from others, they are averse to receiving information about their relative ability and negative informative feedback, and not averse to receiving positive feedback.^[50] If new information about an individual's performance is negative feedback, this may interact with a negative affective state (low self-confidence) causing the individual to become demoralized, which in turn induces a self-defeating attitude that increases the likelihood of failure in the future more than if they did not lack self-confidence.^[51] People may be more self-confident about what they believe if they consult sources of information that agree with their world views.^[52] People may deceive themselves about their positive qualities and the negative qualities of others so that they can display greater self-confidence than they might otherwise feel, thereby enabling them to advance socially and materially.^[53]

Perceptions of self-confidence in others

People with high self-confidence are more likely to impress others, as others perceive them as more knowledgeable and more likely to make correct judgments.^[54] Despite this, a negative correlation is sometimes found between the level of their self-confidence and the accuracy of their claims.^[55] When people are uncertain and unknowledgeable about a topic, they are more likely to believe the testimony,^[56] and follow the advice of those that seem self-confident.^[57] However, expert psychological testimony on the factors that influence eyewitness memory appears to reduce juror reliance on self-confidence.^[56]

People prefer leaders with greater self-confidence over those with less self-confidence.^[58] Self-confident leaders tend to influence others through persuasion instead of resorting to coercive means. They are more likely to resolve issues by referring them to another qualified person or calling upon bureaucratic procedures, which avoid personal involvement.^[59] Others suggest that self-confidence does not affect leadership style but is only correlated with years of supervisory experience and self-perceptions of power.^[28]

Variation in different groups

Social scientists have discovered that self-confidence operates differently in different categories of people.

Children and students

In children, self-confidence emerges differently than in adults. For example, only children as a group may be more self-confident than other children.^[13] If children are self-confident, they may be more likely to sacrifice immediate recreational time for possible rewards in the future, enhancing their self-regulatory capability.^[60] Successful performance of children in music increases feelings of self-confidence, increasing motivation for study.^[61] By adolescence, youth who have little contact with friends tend to have low self-confidence.^[62] In adolescents, low self-confidence may be a predictor of loneliness.^[63]

Photo captioned "Bashful" in a 1916–1917 yearbook, Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin

In general, students who perform well have increased confidence, which likely in turn encourages them to take greater responsibility to complete tasks.^[64] Teachers affect the self-confidence of their students depending on how they treat them.^[65] Students who perform better receive more positive evaluation reports and have greater self-confidence.^[66] Characteristically low-achieving students report less confidence, while characteristically high-performing students report higher self-confidence.^[67] Extracurricular activities in school settings can boost confidence in students at earlier ages. These include participation in games or sports, visual and performing arts, and public speaking.^[68]

In a phenomenon known as stereotype threat, African American students perform more poorly on exams (relative to White American students) if they must reveal their racial identities before the exam.^[69] A similar phenomenon has been found in female students' performance (relative to male students) on math tests.^[70] The opposite has been observed in Asian Americans, whose confidence becomes tied up in expectations that they will succeed by both parents and teachers and who claim others perceive them as excelling academically more than they are.^[71]

Male university students may be more confident than their female counterparts.^[17] In regards to inter-ethnic interaction and language learning, those who engage more with people of different ethnicity and language become more self-confident in interacting with them.^[72]

Men and women

Women who are either high or low in general self-confidence are more likely to be persuaded to change their opinion than women with medium self-confidence. However, when specific high confidence (self-efficacy) is high, generalized confidence plays less of a role.^[73] Men who have low generalized self-confidence are more easily persuaded than men of high generalized self-confidence.^[74]

Women tend to respond less to negative feedback and be more averse to negative feedback than men.^[50] In experiments conducted by economists Muriel Niederle and Lise Vesterlund, the researchers found that male overconfidence and male preference for competition contributed to higher male participation in a competitive tournament scheme, while risk and feedback aversion played a negligible role.^[75] Some scholars partly attribute the fact of women being less likely to persist in engineering college than men to women's diminished sense of self-confidence.^[76]

More self-confident women may receive high-performance evaluations but not be as well-liked as men who engage in the same behaviour.^[77] Confident women may be considered a better job candidate than both men and women who behaved modestly.^[78] Male common stock investors trade 45% more than their female counterparts, which they attribute to greater recklessness (though also self-confidence) of men, reducing men's net returns by 2.65 percentage points per year versus women's 1.72 percentage points.^[79] Women report lower self-confidence levels than men in supervising subordinates.^[80]

One study found that women who viewed commercials with women in traditional gender roles appeared less self-confident in giving a speech than those who viewed commercials with women taking on more masculine roles.^[15] Such self-confidence may also be related to body image, as one study found a sample of overweight people in Australia and the US are less self-confident about their body's performance than people of average weight, and the difference is even greater for women than for men.^[81] Others found that if a newborn is separated from its mother upon delivery, the mother is less self-confident in her ability to raise that child than one who was not separated from her child. Furthermore, women who initially had low self-confidence are likely to experience a larger drop of self-confidence after separation from their children than women with relatively higher self-confidence.^[82] Heterosexual men who exhibit greater self-confidence relative to other men more easily attract single and partnered women.^[83]

Athletes

Self-confidence is one of the most influential factors in how well an athlete performs in a competition.^[84] In particular, "robust self-confidence beliefs" are correlated with aspects of mental toughness—the ability to cope better than one's opponents and remain focused under pressure.^[85] These traits enable athletes to "bounce back from adversity".^[86] When athletes confront stress while playing sports, their self-confidence decreases. However, feedback from their team members in the form of emotional and informational support reduces the extent to which stresses in sports reduce their self-confidence. At high levels of support, performance-related stress does not affect self-confidence.^[87] Among gymnasts, those who tend to talk to themselves in an instructional format tend to be more self-confident than those who do not.^[88] In a group, members' desire for success and confidence can also be related. Groups that had a higher desire for success did better in performance than groups with a weaker desire. The more frequently a group succeeded, the more interest they had in the activity and success.^[89]

Self-confidence in different cultures

The utility of self-confidence may vary by culture. Some find Asians perform better when they lack confidence, especially when compared to North Americans.^[90]

See also

• Assertiveness – Capacity of being self-assured without being aggressive to defend a point of view
• Confidence trick, also known as Confidence game – Attempt to defraud a person or groupPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
• Dunning–Kruger effect – Cognitive bias about one's own skill
• Emotional bias – Distortion in cognition
• Grandiose delusions – Subtype of delusion
• Haughtiness – Positive effect from the perceived value of a personPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
• Hubris – Extreme pride or overconfidence, often in combination with arrogance
• Icarus complex – Psychological complex
• Inner critic – Concept in psychology
• Law of attraction – Pseudoscientific belief
• Low self-esteem – Human emotional needPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
• Narcissism – Excessive preoccupation with oneself
• Security – Degree of resistance to, or protection from, harm
• Self-serving bias – Distortion to enhance self-esteem, or to see oneself overly favorably
• Shyness – Feeling of apprehension, discomfort or awkwardness in the presence of other people
• Vanity – Excessive concern for one's own appearance, or importance

References

1. • "Confidence". Merriam-Webster. 24 March 2024. Retrieved 31 March 2024.
   • "Confidence". Cambridge Dictionary. Retrieved 31 March 2024.
   • "Confidence". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 31 March 2024.
2. Zellner, M. (1970). "Self-esteem, reception, and influenceability". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 15 (1): 87–93. doi:10.1037/h0029201. PMID 4393678.
3. Perry, Patricia (2011). "Concept Analysis: Confidence/Self-confidence: Concept Analysis: Self-confidence". Nursing Forum. 46 (4): 218–230. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6198.2011.00230.x. PMID 22029765.
4. Judge, Timothy A.; Erez, Amir; Bono, Joyce E.; Thoresen, Carl J. (1 September 2002). "Are measures of self-esteem, neuroticism, locus of control, and generalized self-efficacy indicators of a common core construct?". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 83 (3): 693–710. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.3.693. ISSN 1939-1315. PMID 12219863. S2CID 18551901.
5. Edwards, J., & Wesley, J. (1742). Some Thoughts Concerning the Present Revival of Religion in New England. S. Kneeland and T. Green.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
6. Freiburg, R (1742). This Vicissitude of Motion and Rest, Which We Call Life. The Spectator.
7. Tocqueville, Alexis de (1899). Democracy in America: Volume II. Washington Square Press.
8. Bird, Charles (1 January 1917). "From Home to the Charge: A Psychological Study of the Soldier". The American Journal of Psychology. 28 (3): 315–348. doi:10.2307/1413607. JSTOR 1413607.
9. Wheeler, Mary P. (1918). "Alcohol and Social Case Work". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 77: 154–159. doi:10.1177/000271621807700116. JSTOR 1014456. S2CID 143016895.
10. Eisenberg, P.; Lazarsfeld, P. F. (1 June 1938). "The psychological effects of unemployment". Psychological Bulletin. 35 (6): 358–390. doi:10.1037/h0063426. ISSN 1939-1455.
11. Maslow, A. H. (1 July 1943). "A theory of human motivation". Psychological Review. 50 (4): 370–396. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.334.7586. doi:10.1037/h0054346. ISSN 1939-1471. S2CID 53326433.
12. • Greenwald, A. G.; Banaji, M. R. (1995). "Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes". Psychological Review. 102 (1): 4–27. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.411.2919. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.102.1.4. ISSN 1939-1471. PMID 7878162. S2CID 8194189.
    • Bénabou, Roland; Tirole, Jean (2005). Agarwal, Bina; Vercelli, Alessandro (eds.). Psychology, Rationality and Economic Behaviour. International Economic Association Series. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 19–57. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.179.119. doi:10.1057/9780230522343_2. ISBN 9781349521449.
    • Bandura, Albert (15 February 1997). Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-7167-2850-4.
    • Baumeister, Roy F.; Campbell, Jennifer D.; Krueger, Joachim I.; Vohs, Kathleen D. (1 May 2003). "Does High Self-Esteem Cause Better Performance, Interpersonal Success, Happiness, or Healthier Lifestyles?". Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 4 (1): 1–44. doi:10.1111/1529-1006.01431. ISSN 1529-1006. PMID 26151640.
13. Fenton, Norman (1928). "The Only Child". The Pedagogical Seminary and Journal of Genetic Psychology. 35 (4): 546–556. doi:10.1080/08856559.1928.10532171.
14. Clément, Richard; Kruidenier, Bastian G. (1 September 1983). "Orientations in Second Language Acquisition: I. the Effects of Ethnic, Milieu, and Target Language on Their Emergence". Language Learning. 33 (3): 273–291. doi:10.1111/j.1467-1770.1983.tb00542.x. ISSN 1467-9922.
15. Jennings-Walstedt, J.; Geis, F.L.; Brown, V. (1980). "Influence of television commercials on women's self-confidence and independent judgment". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 38 (3): 203–210. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.38.2.203.
16. Shrauger, J. Sidney; Schohn, Mary (1 September 1995). "Self-Confidence in College Students: Conceptualization, Measurement, and Behavioral Implications". Assessment. 2 (3): 255–278. doi:10.1177/1073191195002003006. ISSN 1073-1911. S2CID 144758626.
17. Lopez, F.G.; Gormley, B. (2002). "Stability and change in adult attachment style over the first-year college transition: Relations to self-confidence, coping, and distress patterns". Journal of Counseling Psychology. 45 (3): 355–364. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.49.3.355.
18. Rees, Tim; Freeman, Paul (1 July 2007). "The effects of perceived and received support on self-confidence". Journal of Sports Sciences. 25 (9): 1057–1065. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.329.9348. doi:10.1080/02640410600982279. ISSN 0264-0414. PMID 17497407. S2CID 424766.
19. Beattie, Stuart; Hardy, Lew; Savage, Jennifer; Woodman, Tim; Callow, Nichola (1 March 2011). "Development and validation of a trait measure of robustness of self-confidence". Psychology of Sport and Exercise. 12 (2): 184–191. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.09.008.
20. Luszczynska, A.; Schwarzer, R. (2005). "Social cognitive theory". In Conner, M.; Norman, P. (eds.). Predicting health behaviour (2nd ed.). Buckingham, England: Open University Press. pp. 127–169.
21. Reis, Harry T. (1 November 2008). "Reinvigorating the Concept of Situation in Social Psychology". Personality and Social Psychology Review. 12 (4): 311–329. doi:10.1177/1088868308321721. ISSN 1088-8683. PMID 18812499. S2CID 206682425.
22. Weiner, Bernard (1985). "An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion". Psychological Review. 92 (4): 548–573. doi:10.1037/0033-295x.92.4.548. PMID 3903815. S2CID 6499506.
23. Eiser, J. Richard; Sutton, Stephen R. (1977). "Smoking as a subjectively rational choice". Addictive Behaviors. 2 (2–3): 129–134. doi:10.1016/0306-4603(77)90030-2. PMID 899903.
24. Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. (1 January 2009). Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518724-3.
25. Festinger, L. (1954). "A theory of social comparison processes". Human Relations. 7 (2): 117–140. doi:10.1177/001872675400700202. S2CID 18918768.
26. Bauer, Raymond (1 May 1964). "The obstinate audience: The influence process from the point of view of social communication". American Psychologist. 19 (5): 319–328. doi:10.1037/h0042851. ISSN 1935-990X.
27. Thorndike, Edward L. (1920). "Psychological Notes on the Motives for Thrift". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 87: 212–218. doi:10.1177/000271622008700133. JSTOR 1014401. S2CID 145103629.
28. Mowday, Richard T. (1 December 1979). "Leader Characteristics, Self-Confidence, and Methods of Upward Influence in Organizational Decision Situations". Academy of Management Journal. 22 (4): 709–725. ISSN 0001-4273. JSTOR 255810.
29. Gough, Harrison G.; McClosky, Herbert; Meehl, Paul E. (1952). "A personality scale for social responsibility". The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. 47 (1): 73–80. doi:10.1037/h0062924. ISSN 0096-851X. PMID 14907250.
30. Locke, Edwin A. (1987). "Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social-Cognitive View (review)". Academy of Management Review. 12 (1): 169–171. doi:10.5465/amr.1987.4306538. ISSN 0363-7425.
31. Druckman, Daniel; Bjork, Robert A., eds. (1994). Learning, Remembering, Believing: Enhancing Human Performance. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/2303. ISBN 978-0-309-04993-1.
32. Locander, William B.; Hermann, Peter W. (1979). "The Effect of Self-Confidence and Anxiety on Information Seeking in Consumer Risk Reduction". Journal of Marketing Research. 16 (2): 268–274. doi:10.2307/3150690. JSTOR 3150690.
33. • Akerlof, G. A.; Dickens, W. T. (1972). "The Economic Consequences of Cognitive Dissonance". American Economic Review. 72 (3): 307–319.
    • Caplin, A.; Leahy, J. (2001). "Psychological expected utility theory and anticipatory feelings". Quarterly Journal of Economics. 116 (1): 55–79. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.334.9951. doi:10.1162/003355301556347. JSTOR 2696443.
34. Bénabou, R.; Tirole, J. (2005). "Self-confidence and personal motivation" (PDF). Psychology, Rationality and Economic Behaviour: 19–57. doi:10.1057/9780230522343_2. ISBN 978-1-349-52144-9.
35. Compte, O.; Postlewaite, A. (2004). "Confidence-enhanced performance". The American Economic Review. 94 (5): 1536–1557. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.318.7105. doi:10.1257/0002828043052204.
36. • Hobfoll, Stevan E. (1988). The Ecology of Stress. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9780891168454.
    • Argyle, Michael (15 April 2013). The Social Psychology of Everyday Life. Routledge. ISBN 9781134961733.
37. Deutsch, Morton; Gerard, Harold B. (1955). "A study of normative and informational social influences upon individual judgment". The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. 51 (3): 629–636. doi:10.1037/h0046408. PMID 13286010. S2CID 35785090.
38. Bandura, Albert; Cervone, Daniel (1983). "Self-evaluative and self-efficacy mechanisms governing the motivational effects of goal systems". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 45 (5): 1017–1028. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.45.5.1017. ISSN 0022-3514.
39. Bandura, Albert; Cervone, Daniel (1983). "Self-evaluative and self-efficacy mechanisms governing the motivational effects of goal systems". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 45 (5): 1017–1028. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.45.5.1017. ISSN 1939-1315.
40. Kent, Gerry; Gibbons, Rachel (March 1987). "Self-efficacy and the control of anxious cognitions". Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry. 18 (1): 33–40. doi:10.1016/0005-7916(87)90069-3. PMID 3558850.
41. Brown, S.P.; Cron, W.L.; Slocum Jr., J.W. (1988). "Effects of trait competitiveness and perceived intraorganizational competition on salesperson goal setting and performance". The Journal of Marketing: 88–98.
42. • de Jong, Ad; Ruyter, Ko de; Wetzels, Martin (2006). "Linking employee confidence to performance: A study of self-managing service teams". Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science. 34 (4): 576. doi:10.1177/0092070306287126. ISSN 0092-0703. S2CID 168139940.
    • Westbrook, R.A. (1980). "Intrapersonal affective influences on consumer satisfaction with products". Journal of Consumer Research. 7 (1): 49–54. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1032.3637. doi:10.1086/208792.
43. Franzoni, S.; Rozzini, R.; Boffelli, S.; Frisoni, G.B.; Trabucchi, M. (1994). "Fear of falling in nursing home patients". Gerontology. 40 (1): 38–44. doi:10.1159/000213573. PMID 8034202.
44. Hilbert, Martin (2012). "Toward a synthesis of cognitive biases: How noisy information processing can bias human decision making" (PDF). Psychological Bulletin. 138 (2): 211–237. doi:10.1037/a0025940. PMID 22122235.
45. Johnson, Dominic D.P.; Fowler, James H. (14 September 2011). "The evolution of overconfidence". Nature. 477 (7364): 317–320. arXiv:0909.4043. Bibcode:2011Natur.477..317J. doi:10.1038/nature10384. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 21921915. S2CID 4384687.
46. Timko, Alix; England, Erica; Herbert, James; Foreman, Evan (Fall 2010). "The Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure as a measure of Self-Esteem". The Psychological Record. 60 (4): 679. doi:10.1007/BF03395739. S2CID 55255465. Archived from the original on 26 January 2020. Retrieved 26 January 2020.
47. Beer, J.; Lombardo M; Bhanji J. (September 2010). "Roles of Medial Prefrontal Cortex and Orbitofrontal Cortex in Self-evaluation". Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 22 (9): 2108–2119. doi:10.1162/jocn.2009.21359. PMC 4159715. PMID 19925187.
48. Hoven, Monja; Lebreton, Maël; Engelmann, Jan B.; Denys, Damiaan; Luigjes, Judy; van Holst, Ruth J. (2019). "Abnormalities of confidence in psychiatry: an overview and future perspectives". Translational Psychiatry. 9 (1): 268. doi:10.1038/s41398-019-0602-7. PMC 6803712. PMID 31636252.
49. • Albarracín, D.; Mitchell, A.L. (2004). "The role of defensive confidence in preference for attitudinal information: How believing that one is strong can sometimes be a defensive weakness". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 30 (12): 1565–1584. doi:10.1177/0146167204271180. PMC 4803283. PMID 15536240.
    • Byrne, Donn (1 September 1961). "The repression-sensitization scale: rationale, reliability, and validity". Journal of Personality. 29 (3): 334–349. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1961.tb01666.x. ISSN 1467-6494. PMID 13689584.
    • Albarracín, Dolores; Mitchell, Amy L. (1 December 2004). "The Role of Defensive Confidence in Preference for Proattitudinal Information: How Believing That One Is Strong Can Sometimes Be a Defensive Weakness". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 30 (12): 1565–1584. doi:10.1177/0146167204271180. ISSN 0146-1672. PMC 4803283. PMID 15536240.
50. Mobius, M. M.; Niederle, M.; Niehaus, P.; Rosenblat, T. S. (2011). "Managing Self-Confidence: Theory and Experimental Evidence". NBER Working Paper No. 17014. doi:10.3386/w17014.
51. • Cervone, Daniel; Kopp, Deborah A.; Schaumann, Linda; Scott, Walter D. (1 September 1994). "Mood, self-efficacy, and performance standards: Lower moods induce higher standards for performance". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 67 (3): 499–512. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.3.499. ISSN 1939-1315.
    • Wright, J. C.; Mischel, W. (1982). "The influence of affect on cognitive social learning person variables". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 43 (5): 901–914. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.43.5.901.
52. Frey, Dieter (1986). Berkowitz, Leonard (ed.). Advances in Experimental Social Psychology. Vol. 19. Academic Press. pp. 41–80. doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60212-9. ISBN 9780120152193.
53. Hippel, William von; Trivers, Robert (1 February 2011). "The evolution and psychology of self-deception". Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 34 (1): 1–16. doi:10.1017/S0140525X10001354. ISSN 1469-1825. PMID 21288379.
54. Price, Paul C.; Stone, Eric R. (2004). "Intuitive evaluation of likelihood judgment producers: evidence for a confidence heuristic". Journal of Behavioral Decision Making. 17 (1): 39–57. doi:10.1002/bdm.460. hdl:10211.3/187361. ISSN 1099-0771. S2CID 145763938.
55. Slovenko, R. (1999). "Testifying with confidence". Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law Online. 27 (1): 127–131. PMID 10212032.
56. Penrod, Steven; Cutler, Brian (1995). "Witness confidence and witness accuracy: Assessing their forensic relation". Psychology, Public Policy, and Law. 1 (4): 817–845. doi:10.1037/1076-8971.1.4.817.
57. Zarnoth, P.; Sniezek, J.A. (1997). "The social influence of confidence in group decision making". Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 33 (4): 345–366. doi:10.1006/jesp.1997.1326. PMID 9247369. S2CID 28783168.
58. • Conger, Jay A.; Kanungo, Rabindra N. (1994). "Charismatic Leadership in Organizations: Perceived Behavioral Attributes and Their Measurement". Journal of Organizational Behavior. 15 (5): 439–452. doi:10.1002/job.4030150508. JSTOR 2488215.
    • Shamir, Boas; House, Robert J.; Arthur, Michael B. (1993). "The Motivational Effects of Charismatic Leadership: A Self-Concept Based Theory". Organization Science. 4 (4): 577–594. doi:10.1287/orsc.4.4.577. JSTOR 2635081.
59. • Gamson, W. (1968). Power and Discontent. Homewood, Ill.: Dorsey.
    • Kanter, R. (1977). Men and women in the corporation. New York: Basic Books.
    • Kipnis, D.; Lane, W. (1962). "Self-confidence and leadership". Journal of Applied Psychology. 46 (4): 291–295. doi:10.1037/h0044720.
    • Goodstadt, B.; Kipnis, D. (1970). "Situational influence on the use of power". Journal of Applied Psychology. 54 (3): 201–207. doi:10.1037/h0029265.
60. Zimmerman, Barry J. (1990). "Self-Regulated Learning and Academic Achievement: An Overview". Educational Psychologist. 25 (1): 3–17. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2501_2. ISSN 0046-1520.
61. • Clift, S.; Hancox, G.; Staricoff, R.; Whitmore, C. (2008). "Singing and health: A systematic mapping and review of non-clinical research". Sidney de Haan Research Centre for Arts and Health: Canterbury Christ Church University.
    • Hallam, Susan (1 August 2010). "The power of music: Its impact on the intellectual, social and personal development of children and young people". International Journal of Music Education. 28 (3): 269–289. doi:10.1177/0255761410370658. ISSN 0255-7614. S2CID 5662260.
62. Waddell, Kathleen J. (1 March 1984). "The self-concept and social adaptation of hyperactive children in adolescence". Journal of Clinical Child Psychology. 13 (1): 50–55. doi:10.1080/15374418409533169. ISSN 0047-228X.
63. Cheng, Helen; Furnham, Adrian (1 June 2002). "Personality, peer relations, and self-confidence as predictors of happiness and loneliness". Journal of Adolescence. 25 (3): 327–339. doi:10.1006/jado.2002.0475. PMID 12128043.
64. Zimmerman, Barry J.; Kitsantas, Anastasia (1 October 2005). "Homework practices and academic achievement: The mediating role of self-efficacy and perceived responsibility beliefs". Contemporary Educational Psychology. 30 (4): 397–417. doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2005.05.003. S2CID 145715728.
65. Smith, Eliot R.; Mackie, Diane M. (2007). Social Psychology. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1-84169-408-5.
66. Pajares, Frank; Johnson, Margaret J. (1 April 1996). "Self-efficacy beliefs and the writing performance of entering high school students". Psychology in the Schools. 33 (2): 163–175. doi:10.1002/(sici)1520-6807(199604)33:2<163::aid-pits10>3.0.co;2-c. ISSN 1520-6807.
67. Zusho, Akane; Pintrich, Paul R.; Coppola, Brian (1 September 2003). "Skill and will: The role of motivation and cognition in the learning of college chemistry". International Journal of Science Education. 25 (9): 1081–1094. Bibcode:2003IJSEd..25.1081Z. doi:10.1080/0950069032000052207. ISSN 0950-0693. S2CID 17385637.
68. Gurukul, Vishwashanti. "Importance of Cultural Activities". www.mitgurukul.com. Retrieved 8 July 2021.
69. Steele, C.M.; Aronson, J. (1995). "Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 69 (5): 797–811. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797. PMID 7473032. S2CID 4665022.
70. Keller, Johannes; Dauenheimer, Dirk (1 March 2003). "Stereotype Threat in the Classroom: Dejection Mediates the Disrupting Threat Effect on Women's Math Performance". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 29 (3): 371–381. doi:10.1177/0146167202250218. ISSN 0146-1672. PMID 15273014. S2CID 38999448.
71. Lee, J.; Zhou, M. (2014). "From unassimilable to exceptional: The rise of Asian Americans and 'Stereotype Promise'" (PDF). New Diversities. 16 (1): 7–22.
72. Noels, Kimberly A.; Pon, Gordon; Clement, Richard (1 September 1996). "Language, Identity, and Adjustment The Role of Linguistic Self-Confidence in the Acculturation Process". Journal of Language and Social Psychology. 15 (3): 246–264. doi:10.1177/0261927X960153003. ISSN 0261-927X. S2CID 145666109.
73. Cox, Donald F.; Bauer, Raymond A. (1964). "Self-Confidence and Persuasibility in Women". The Public Opinion Quarterly. 28 (3): 453–466. doi:10.1086/267266. JSTOR 2747017.
74. • Henle, Mary (1961). Documents of Gestalt Psychology. University of California Press. p. 222.
    • Berkowitz, Leonard; Lundy, Richard M. (1 March 1957). "Personality Characteristics Related to Susceptibility to Influence by Peers or Authority Figures". Journal of Personality. 25 (3): 306–316. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1957.tb01529.x. ISSN 1467-6494. PMID 13439514.
    • Janis, Irving L (1 June 1954). "Personality Correlates of Susceptibility To Persuasion". Journal of Personality. 22 (4): 504–518. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1954.tb01870.x. ISSN 1467-6494. PMID 13163818.
75. Niederle, M.; Vesterlund, L. (2007). "Do women shy away from competition? Do men compete too much?" (PDF). The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 122 (3): 1067–1101. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.151.4864. doi:10.1162/qjec.122.3.1067.
76. Cunningham, C.M.; Thompson, M.; Lachapelle, C.P.; Goodman, I.F.; Bittinger, K.C. (2006). "Women's experiences in college engineering and support programs: Findings from the WECE project". Women in Engineering ProActive Network.
77. Butler, D.; Geis, F.L. (1990). "Nonverbal affect responses to male and female leaders: Implications for leadership evaluations". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 58: 48–59. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.58.1.48.
78. Rudman, L. A. (1988). "Self-promotion as a risk factor for women: the costs and benefits of counterstereotypical impression management". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 74 (3): 629–645. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.453.3587. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.3.629. PMID 9523410.
79. Barber, B.M.; Odean, T. (2001). "Boys will be boys: Gender, overconfidence, and common stock investment". Quarterly Journal of Economics. 116: 261–292. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.295.7095. doi:10.1162/003355301556400.
80. Instone, D.; Major, B.; Bunker, B.B. (1983). "Gender, self-confidence, and social influence strategies: An organizational simulation". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 44 (2): 322–333. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.44.2.322.
81. Tiggemann, Marika; Rothblum, Esther D. (1988). "Gender differences in social consequences of perceived overweight in the United States and Australia". Sex Roles. 18 (1–2): 75–86. doi:10.1007/BF00288018. ISSN 0360-0025. S2CID 145751588.
82. Seashore, M.J.; Leifer, A.D.; Barnett, C.R.; Leiderman, P.H. (1973). "The effects of denial of early mother-infant interaction on maternal self-confidence". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 26 (3): 369–378. doi:10.1037/h0034497. PMID 4710108.
83. • Buss, D.M. (2009). "The great struggles of life: Darwin and the emergence of evolutionary psychology" (PDF). American Psychologist. 64 (2): 140–148. doi:10.1037/a0013207. PMID 19203146. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 February 2019. Retrieved 26 January 2020.
    • Schmitt, D.P.; Buss, D.M. (2001). "Human mate poaching: Tactics and temptations for infiltrating existing mateships" (PDF). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 80 (6): 894–917. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.80.6.894. PMID 11414373.
84. • Craft, L.L.; Magyar, T.M.; Becker, B.J.; Feltz, D.L. (2003). "The relationship between the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 and sport performance: A meta-analysis". Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 25 (1): 44–65. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.459.4342. doi:10.1123/jsep.25.1.44.
    • Woodman, Tim; Hardy, Lew (2003). "The relative impact of cognitive anxiety and self-confidence upon sport performance: a meta-analysis". Journal of Sports Sciences. 21 (6): 443–457. doi:10.1080/0264041031000101809. ISSN 0264-0414. PMID 12846532. S2CID 481243.
85. • Bull, Stephen J.; Shambrook, Christopher J.; James, Wil; Brooks, Jocelyne E. (1 September 2005). "Towards an Understanding of Mental Toughness in Elite English Cricketers". Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. 17 (3): 209–227. doi:10.1080/10413200591010085. ISSN 1041-3200. S2CID 145484578.
    • Connaughton, Declan; Wadey, Ross; Hanton, Sheldon; Jones, Graham (2008). "The development and maintenance of mental toughness: Perceptions of elite performers". Journal of Sports Sciences. 26 (1): 83–95. doi:10.1080/02640410701310958. ISSN 0264-0414. PMID 17852671. S2CID 23040478.
86. Galli, N.; Vealey, R.S. (2008). "Bouncing back from adversity: Athletes' experiences of resilience". The Sport Psychologist. 22 (3): 316–335. doi:10.1123/tsp.22.3.316. S2CID 44199464.
87. Freeman, Paul; Rees, Tim (2010). "Perceived social support from team-mates: Direct and stress-buffering effects on self-confidence" (PDF). European Journal of Sport Science. 10 (1): 59–67. doi:10.1080/17461390903049998. hdl:10871/16326. ISSN 1746-1391. S2CID 143561743.
88. Mahoney, Michael J.; Avener, Marshall (1977). "Psychology of the elite athlete: An exploratory study". Cognitive Therapy and Research. 1 (2): 135–141. doi:10.1007/BF01173634. ISSN 0147-5916. S2CID 39561309.
89. Zander, Alvin; Ulberg, Cyrus (May 1971). "The group level of aspiration and external social pressures". Organizational Behavior and Human Performance. 6 (3): 362–378. doi:10.1016/0030-5073(71)90023-7. hdl:2027.42/33663. ISSN 0030-5073.
90. • Heine, S.J.; Kitayama, S.; Lehman, D.R.; Takata, T.; Ide, E.; Leung, C.; Matsumoto, H. (2001). "Divergent consequences of success and failure in japan and north America: an investigation of self-improving motivations and malleable selves". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 81 (4): 599–615. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.4.599. PMID 11642348. S2CID 3745951.
    • Diener, Ed; Oishi, Shigehiro; Lucas, Richard E. (1 February 2003). "Personality, Culture, and Subjective Well-Being: Emotional and Cognitive Evaluations of Life". Annual Review of Psychology. 54 (1): 403–425. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145056. ISSN 0066-4308. PMID 12172000.
    • Peters, Heather J.; Williams, Jean M. (1 September 2006). "Moving Cultural Background to the Foreground: An Investigation of Self-Talk, Performance, and Persistence Following Feedback". Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. 18 (3): 240–253. doi:10.1080/10413200600830315. ISSN 1041-3200. S2CID 145178557.