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World's fair held in New York City From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The 1939–1940 New York World's Fair was a world's fair at Flushing Meadows–Corona Park in Queens, New York City, United States. The fair included exhibitions, activities, performances, films, art, and food presented by 62 nations, 35 U.S. states, and over a thousand organizations and companies. Slightly more than 45 million people attended over two seasons. It was based on "the world of tomorrow", with an opening slogan of "Dawn of a New Day". The 1,202-acre (486 ha) fairground consisted of seven color-coded zones, as well as two standalone focal exhibits. The fairground had about 375 buildings.
1939 New York City | |
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![]() Poster by Joseph Binder | |
Overview | |
BIE-class | Universal exposition |
Category | Second category General Exposition |
Name | New York World's Fair |
Motto | The World of Tomorrow |
Area | 1,202 acres (486 hectares) |
Organized by | Grover Whalen |
Participant(s) | |
Countries | 62 |
Organizations | 1,400 |
Location | |
Country | United States |
City | New York City |
Venue | Flushing Meadows–Corona Park |
Coordinates | 40°44′39″N 73°50′40″W |
Timeline | |
Opening | April 30, 1939 (first season) May 11, 1940 (second season) |
Closure | October 31, 1939 (first season) October 27, 1940 (second season) |
Universal expositions | |
Previous | Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne in Paris |
Next | Exposition internationale du bicentenaire de Port-au-Prince in Port-au-Prince |
Specialized Expositions | |
Previous | Second International Aeronautic Exhibition (1938) in Helsinki |
Next | International Exhibition on Urbanism and Housing (1947) in Paris |
Simultaneous | |
Universal | Golden Gate International Exposition |
Specialized | Exposition internationale de l'eau in Liège |
Plans for the 1939 World's Fair were first announced in September 1935, and the New York World's Fair Corporation (WFC) began constructing the fairground in June 1936. The fair opened on April 30, 1939, coinciding with the 150th anniversary of the first inauguration of George Washington. When World War II began four months into the 1939 World's Fair, many exhibits were affected, and some exhibits were forced to close after the first season. The fair attracted over 45 million visitors and ultimately recouped only 32% of its original cost. After the fair ended on October 27, 1940, most pavilions were demolished or removed, though some buildings were relocated or retained for the 1964 New York World's Fair on the same site.
The fair hosted many activities and cultural events. Participating governments, businesses, and organizations were celebrated on specific theme days. Musical performances took place in conjunction with the fair, and sculptures and artworks were displayed throughout the fairground and within pavilions. The fairground also served as a showcase for consumer products (including electronic devices), and there were dozens of restaurants and concession stands.
New York City had hosted the United States' first world's fair, the Exhibition of the Industry of All Nations, in 1853–1854.[1] At the time, the site of the 1939 World's Fair, Flushing Meadows–Corona Park in Queens, was a natural wetland straddling the Flushing River.[2] Flushing Meadows became the Corona Ash Dumps in the early 20th century.[3] New York City Parks Commissioner Robert Moses first conceived the idea of developing a large park in Flushing Meadows in the 1920s.[4] Although the neighborhoods around Flushing Meadows contained residential developments, the meadow itself remained undeveloped and isolated.[5] Meanwhile, the 1933 Century of Progress exposition in Chicago had boosted that city's economy, prompting businesspeople in New York City to consider a similar fair.[6][7]
The New York Times attributes the idea for the 1939 New York World's Fair to the civil engineer Joseph Shadgren, who had come up with the idea in 1934 following a conversation with his daughter.[8] By early 1935, a group led by the municipal reformer George McAneny was considering an international exposition in New York City in 1939.[6][9] Though the date coincided with the 150th anniversary of George Washington's first inauguration,[9][10] Moses said the date was "an excuse and not the reason" for the fair.[10] That September, the group announced plans to spend $40 million to host an exhibition at the 1,003-acre (406 ha) Flushing Meadows site.[11] The New York City Board of Estimate approved the use of Flushing Meadows as a fairground on September 23,[12] and Moses directed municipal draftsmen to survey the site.[13] The Flushing Meadows site had been selected because of its large size and central location,[14] and the city already owned 586 acres (237 ha) nearby.[15]
Mayor Fiorello La Guardia pledged financial support for the fair that October;[16] at the time, Moses estimated that it would cost $5–7 million to prepare the fairground and build transit to the fair.[17] The New York World's Fair Corporation (WFC) was formed to oversee the exposition on October 22, 1935,[18] and the Board of Estimate allocated $200,000 the next day for preliminary work.[19] The WFC elected McAneny as its president,[6][20] and two contractors were hired that December to conduct preliminary surveys.[21] Several foreign exhibitors had expressed interest in the fair before the end of the year.[22] There were also plans for exhibition spaces such as a fine arts building[23] and a cosmetics show.[24] In addition, the Fine Arts Federation of the City of New York urged the WFC to implement a "unified arts scheme" for the fair,[25] and the WFC and the New York City Board of Transportation devised plans for public transit lines to the fair.[26]
In January 1936, state lawmaker Herbert Brownell Jr. proposed a bill to allow the city government to formally lease the Flushing Meadows site to the WFC.[27] Moses warned that the fairground's completion could be delayed due to funding issues; by then, the fair was estimated to cost $45 million.[28][29] That February, McAneny announced that he would organize a committee to devise an architectural plan for the fairground.[30] The committee initially advocated for a single massive building.[6] Brownell requested funding from New York governor Herbert Lehman the same month for "basic World's Fair improvements";[31] the city and state governments were each supposed to spend $5 million on site preparations.[32]
The project remained stalled during early 1936 because of disagreements over the fair's location and financing.[32][33] There were also competing proposals to relocate the fair to Marine Park in Brooklyn.[33][34] but the New York State Legislature ultimately voted in April to allow the city to lease out Flushing Meadows.[35] Grover Whalen replaced McAneny as the WFC's chairman[6][36] and would later be elected as the agency's full-time president as well.[37] At the end of the month, the city government announced plans to sell $7 million in bonds, while the state pledged $4.125 million for the project.[38] In addition, the WFC was to sell $20 million worth of bonds.[15] J. Franklin Bell was hired to draw up preliminary plans for the fair,[39] and the WFC appointed a committee of seven men[lower-alpha 1] to devise a plan for the fairground.[41][40] The New York City Board of Estimate appropriated $308,020 to begin landscaping the site the same month,[42] and city officials acquired another 372 acres (151 ha) through eminent domain.[43] The WFC dedicated the fairground site on June 4, 1936,[44] shortly before the city finalized its lease of Flushing Meadows to the WFC in June 1936.[45]
Work on the World's Fair site began on June 16, 1936,[46] and a groundbreaking ceremony for the fairground took place on June 29.[47] The WFC established seven departments and thirteen committees to coordinate the fair's development.[15] The fair was planned to employ 35,000 people.[48] The construction of the fairground involved leveling the ash mounds; excavating Meadow and Willow lakes; and diverting much of the Flushing River into underground culverts.[49][50][51] The dirt from the lake sites was used as additional topsoil for the park.[52] Workers also transported soil from Westchester County, New York, to the fairground.[53] The project was an around-the-clock job, with 450 workers operating on three eight-hour shifts.[54] The rebuilt landscape was to be retained after the fair.[55][56] The city, state, and federal governments also carried out 48 infrastructure-improvement projects, such as highway and landscaping projects, for the fair.[57]
To promote the fair, the WFC established advisory committees with members from every U.S. state.[58] Several baseball teams wore patches promoting the fair during the 1938 Major League Baseball season,[59] while the businessman Howard Hughes named an airplane after the fair and flew it around the world in 1938.[60][61] Helen Huntington Hull led a women's committee that helped promote and develop the fair.[62] New York license plates from 1938 were supposed to have slogans advertising the fair,[63] but a city judge deemed the slogans unconstitutional.[64] New York license plates from 1939 and 1940 also advertised the fair.[65] Local retailers also sold more than $40 million worth of merchandise with World's Fair motifs,[66] and the U.S. government issued stamps depicting the fair's Trylon and Perisphere.[67]
The WFC's board of design reviewed several proposed master plans for the site,[68] and the corporation had relocated the last occupants of the fairground site by August 1936.[69] The WFC launched a design competition for several fairground pavilions that September[70] and selected several winning designs two months later.[71] Before the final master plan was revealed, Whalen said the fair would likely be dedicated to the past, present, and future.[72] The WFC announced details of the fair's master plan that October, which called for a $125 million exposition themed to "the world of tomorrow".[73][74] The city, state, and federal governments would spend $35 million; the WFC was to spend $30 million; and the remaining funds would come from individual exhibitors.[75] There were to be ten zones, an amusement area, a central tower with paths radiating away from it, and extensive public-transit improvements.[74] Later that month, the WFC signed construction contracts for the fairground's first building.[76] At that point, only a small number of fairground buildings had been approved.[48]
In November 1936, France became the first nation to announce its participation,[77] and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt urged other nations to join the fair.[78] The city government also began selling bonds for the fair that month;[79] by then, several nations and hundreds of businesses had expressed interest in the fair.[80] That December, the International Convention Bureau endorsed the 1939 World's Fair, allowing the bureau's 21 member countries to host exhibits there,[81] and Lehman also invited the governors of all other U.S. states.[82] By the beginning of 1937, eleven hundred concessionaires had applied for concessions at the fair,[83] and nine buildings were under construction.[84] The WFC unveiled a model of the fairground at its Empire State Building headquarters that March.[85] Workers had finished grading and filling the World's Fair site by April,[86] and they began planting trees on the fairground.[87] That month, AT&T became the first company to lease a pavilion at the fair,[88][89] and work officially began on the first building, the administration structure.[90] In addition, the WFC began auctioning off the fairground's concession spaces,[91] and workers also began planting trees in early 1937.[92] Whalen predicted that the fair would attract 59 nations.[93]
The Municipal Civil Service Commission accused the WFC of patronage in 1937, claiming that Whalen had hired hundreds of World's Fair employees from outside the city's civil service lists.[94] Shadgen, who had devised the idea for the fair, was ousted from the WFC that year.[95] Whalen announced plans in June 1937 for a 280-acre (110 ha) amusement zone at the south end of the fairground,[96] and Moses proposed adding a trailer parking lot and a community interests zone.[97] Work on the first non-commercial pavilion, the Temple of Peace, began in July.[98] The fairground's first structure, the administration building, was completed by the next month.[99] At the time, 89 buildings were under construction,[100] and 86% of the fairground sites had been leased.[100][101] Utah became the first U.S. state to lease space in the fair's Hall of States that September,[102] while Missouri was the first state to lease space for a standalone building.[103] Whalen also traveled to Europe to invite European countries to the fair.[104] The WFC reported in October that 62 construction contracts had been finished and that another 63 were in progress.[105] Various fairground buildings were rapidly being developed, as well as the Trylon and Perisphere, the fair's icons.[106][107] That December, the Ford Motor Company became the first automobile manufacturer to lease space at the fair;[108] by then, the WFC had received commitments from 60 nations.[109]
The WFC awarded the first concession for the fair in January 1938;[110] by then, Whalen was making plans for the fair's opening ceremony.[111] Whalen wanted to have 100 buildings under construction by the end of April,[112] and the WFC planned to spend $10 million on upgrading the fairground's utilities.[113] Work on the Perisphere (the fair's theme building) began in early April,[114] as did work on the first foreign-government structure.[115] The same month, the WFC leased out the last vacant sites in the fair's Government Zone.[116] By then, 64 nations had leased space at the fair,[7][113] along with 35 U.S. states and territories.[7] Exactly one year before the fair's expected opening, the city hosted a parade with 1 million spectators on April 30, 1938;[117] the WFC celebrated the planned opening with a fireworks show the next week.[118] That May, the WFC began allowing visitors to inspect the fairground on weekends for a fee.[119] By then, many of the buildings were under construction.[120] The structures were all supposed to be completed by the end of March 1939, allowing each pavilion to be tested for a month.[121]
The WFC awarded contracts to 30 amusement-ride operators in June 1938, following months of disputes over the concessions.[122] Work was delayed for three weeks in July during a labor strike.[123] and the delivery of materials was delayed that September during the New York City truckers' strike.[124] The WFC continued to lease out concessions for eateries and amusement rides.[125] By late 1938, workers were painting murals on many buildings, and the subway stations serving the fairground were being completed as well.[126] That October, the Heinz Dome became the first commercial exhibit to be completed,[127] and 80% of the fairground's 3 million square feet (280,000 m2) of exhibit space had been leased.[128][121] Leasing lagged in the amusement zone; by that December, only two-thirds of the rides there had been leased.[129] As part of the "Salute of the Nations" radio program, world leaders delivered "greetings to the fair", which were broadcast over local radio stations.[130]
Whalen announced in January 1939 that the fairground was more than 90% complete,[57][131] but although 95% of the buildings were under construction, work on one-third of the amusement concessions had not started.[131] The fair had attracted 1,300 industrial exhibitors and 70 concessionaires.[57] In addition, 62 nations and 35 U.S. states or territories had leased space at the fair;[57] their flags were flown atop a hill on the fairground.[132] In March 1939, a month and a half before the fair's official opening, Whalen announced plans to spend $1 million on shows and miniature villages in the Amusement Area.[133] The lights on the fairground were first turned on that April, three weeks before the fair's scheduled opening.[134] In addition, La Guardia issued a proclamation declaring April 1939 as "Dress Up and Paint Up Month" in New York City.[135] Sixteen thousand workers were putting final touches on the site by mid-April,[136] and foreign nations were delivering $100 million worth of exhibits to the fair.[137] Thousands of additional workers were employed toward the end of April.[138]
The fairground ultimately cost $156,000,000 (equivalent to $3,417,000,000 in 2023), and Whalen anticipated that 60 million people would visit.[139] Five major newsreel companies were hired to provide newsreel coverage,[140] and the Crosley Corporation and WNYC both had radio broadcasting studios there.[141] The WFC hired Exposition Publications to print a guidebook, souvenir book, and daily programs,[142] and it promoted 17 other publications about the fair.[143] Participating countries, U.S. states and territories, New York counties, businesses, and organizations were given "special days" at the fair, during which celebrations were held.[144]
Whalen agreed to hire only union laborers to install exhibits on the fairground; in exchange, several trade unions agreed to buy the WFC's bonds.[145] Free emergency services were provided on site by dozens of doctors and nurses,[146] and there were six first-aid stations, a mobile X-ray machine, and five ambulances.[147] In addition, the fair was patrolled by 775 security guards,[148] and the New York City Police Department established a temporary precinct that covered the fairground.[149] A temporary New York City Fire Department battalion with 118 firefighters was also organized to provide fire protection for the fair.[150] In addition, the Queens County Court was temporarily expanded to hear additional criminal cases relating to the fair.[151]
For the 1939 season, the WFC charged 75 cents per adult and 25 cents per child; the agency also sold season tickets, multi-visit tickets, and souvenir ticket books.[152] Manhattan borough president Stanley M. Isaacs had wanted the WFC to give students free admission, but Moses opposed the proposal.[153] Whalen began selling discounted advance tickets in February 1939;[154] the corporation wanted to sell at least $3 million of advance tickets.[155] A thousand retailers in the New York metropolitan area sold advance tickets.[156] The fair initially did not distribute free tickets to anyone, although journalists could visit the fairground free of charge.[154] Advance ticket sales were supposed to have ended on April 23, 1939, but the WFC had to print additional souvenir books due to high demand.[157] Though there was an upcharge fee for some of the exhibits and attractions, three-fourths of the original attractions did not charge any extra fees.[158]
On April 30, 1939, exactly 150 years after Washington's first inauguration,[159] the fair formally opened with a speech by President Franklin D. Roosevelt.[160][161] Twenty-eight United States Navy men-of-war arrived in New York City for the fair's opening,[162] and 20,000 people participated in a parade celebrating the opening.[161][163] The fair received 600,000 visitors on its first day, far short of the 1 million visitors that the WFC had predicted.[160][161] At the time, many major attractions in the Amusement Area were incomplete,[164][165] and only 80% of the structures were ready.[166] The fair accommodated one million visitors in its first four days.[167]
In early May, the WFC began allowing visitors under the age of 14 to pay 10 cents one day a week.[168] By then, the fair was 90% finished, but many of the amusement attractions were still incomplete;[169] the WFC's operations department oversaw the remaining work.[170] At La Guardia's behest,[171] the New York City Board of Education operated guided tours in which school classes could visit the fair for free.[172] Concessionaires in the Amusement Area asked the WFC to consider offering reduced-price tickets after 9 p.m.,[173] and the WFC opened more restaurants later that May.[174]
Within a month of the fair's opening, several exhibitors had alleged that labor unions had charged exorbitant prices for labor at the fair.[145][175] At least one exhibitor, the government of Nevada, canceled their exhibit due to high labor-union costs.[176] To entice more children to visit, in June 1939, all of the fairground's amusement-ride operators agreed to lower the prices of each ride to 5 cents one day a week.[177] The WFC also trialed $1 combination tickets that July, which included snacks and admission to multiple rides.[178] At the end of July, the WFC considered reducing admission prices in response to requests from exhibitors and concessionaires.[179] The WFC also began selling $3.75 "bargain books" with 10 food vouchers and 5 admission tickets apiece.[180]
The Carrier Corporation was the first industrial exhibitor to renew its lease for the 1940 season, having signed a lease in September 1939.[181] Due to the onset of World War II, Southern Rhodesia became the first exhibitor to completely shutter its pavilion in September 1939, while other exhibitors curtailed their operations.[182] The Romanian pavilion's restaurant also closed due to the war.[183] Toward the end of the 1939 season, the WFC agreed to halve the rents for U.S. state pavilions during the second season.[184] The fair's first season ended on October 31, 1939; the WFC had recorded 25.8 million visitors during the season.[185]
After the 1939 season ended, most of the commercial exhibitors agreed to continue hosting exhibits for the 1940 season. However, many exhibitors indicated that they would enlarge or modify their exhibits.[186] For the 1940 season, the WFC raised admission prices to 50 cents, and the agency indicated that it would renovate the Amusement Area.[187]
In January 1940, Finland became the first country to agree to reopen its pavilion during the fair's second season,[188] while West Virginia was the first U.S. state to lease additional space.[189] Eleven nations, several of which had been invaded during World War II, did not return to the fair.[190] For example, Sweden closed its pavilion at the end of the 1939 season.[191] The Soviet pavilion was dismantled in December 1939[192] and was replaced by the American Common.[193] Other countries to announce their withdrawals included Albania, Argentina, Chile, Denmark, the Netherlands, Yugoslavia,[194] and Turkey.[195] Conversely, almost all major exhibitors with their own pavilions renewed their leases for the 1940 season.[196]
With the fair struggling, its operators decided to focus more heavily on amusement attractions.[197] The Amusement Area was rebranded as the "Great White Way", a reference to Broadway theatre,[198][199] and the WFC closed off a little-used portion of the Amusement Area.[200] Several exhibits were also added, including four exhibits sponsored by different U.S. governmental departments.[199] Other pavilions had to be repaired due to deterioration during the winter.[201] Twenty thousand hotel rooms were added in New York City prior to the 1940 season, and free shows and low-cost eateries were also added.[202] At the end of April 1940, the fair's amusement director George P. Smith Jr. announced that all of the concessions and rides in the Amusement Area had been leased out.[200]
The World's Fair reopened for its second season on May 11, 1940;[203] it recorded 191,000 visitors on that day.[204] Adult admission was reduced to 50 cents, while children paid 25 cents on regular days and 10 cents on "Children's Days".[202] To entice people to attend the fair, several local business groups and hotels sponsored a contest in which they randomly gave away 170 automobiles to visitors.[205] La Guardia also sponsored a citywide celebration to mark the fair's reopening.[206] For the 1940 season, the international area included exhibits from 43 countries, plus the Pan-American Union and League of Nations.[190]
Venezuela and Cuba withdrew after the 1940 season had begun, and a Chinese pavilion was added during that time.[207] The Belgian pavilion was closed briefly during the 1940 season.[208] On July 4, 1940, two New York City Police Department officers were killed by a blast while investigating a time bomb left at the British pavilion;[209] the bombing has never been solved.[210]
The fair was experiencing financial troubles by August 1940, when the WFC's bondholders agreed to waive $14.5 million that the WFC owed.[211] That month, the WFC began selling off materials and memorabilia from the fair.[212] By the beginning of October 1940, the WFC had come up with detailed plans for clearing the buildings on the site.[213] The fair closed permanently on October 27, 1940.[214] having accommodated 537,952 visitors on its final day.[215] In total, the fair had recorded 19.2 million visitors during 1940,[215][216] and it had attracted just over 45 million visitors across both seasons.[215][217]
The fairground was divided into seven geographic or thematic zones, five of which had "focal exhibits", and there were two focal exhibits housed in their own buildings.[218][161] The plan called for wide tree-lined pathways converging on the Trylon and Perisphere, the fair's symbol and primary theme center.[52][219] The Trylon and Perisphere were the only structures on the fairground that were painted completely white;[148] the buildings in the surrounding zones were color-coded.[120][220] The fairground had 34 miles (55 km) of sidewalks and 17 miles (27 km) of roads, in addition to dozens of miles of sewers, water mains, gas mains, and electrical ducts.[148] There were 11 entrances to the fairground.[139][221]
From the start, Moses wanted to convert the site into a park after the fair,[222] and the fairground's landscape architect, Gilmore David Clarke, had designed the fairground with this expectation in mind.[219] The central portion of the old Flushing ash dumps became the main fairground, while the southern section of the dumps became the narrow Amusement Area, located on the shore of Meadow (Fountain) Lake.[219] The fairground used up to 400,000 cubic yards (310,000 m3) of topsoil from the New York City area, as well as salty, acidic soil dredged from the bottom of Flushing Meadows Park's lagoons.[92] The fairground included 250 acres (100 ha) of lawns and a wide range of topiary and deciduous trees.[223] Around 10,000 trees were transplanted to the fairground,[92][224] of which more than 97 percent survived the 1939 season.[225] There were no evergreen trees because it was not open during the winter, and the site also did not have rare plants.[226]
The fairground also contained 1 million plants, 1 million bulbs, 250,000 shrubs, and 10,000 trees.[221] The site had 7,000 American camassias, 48,000 scillas, and 50,000 narcissi, and there were several formal gardens as well, with roses, yew, and other plants.[227] In addition, the Netherlands donated a million tulip bulbs to the fair,[228][229] though the tulips were destroyed and replaced with other plantings the month after the fair opened.[230] The Washington Post estimated that the WFC spent some $150,000 (equivalent to $3,286,000 in 2023) on plants at the fair.[229] There were also around 50 landscaped gardens.[231]
Despite the fair's futuristic theme, the fairground's layout—with streets radiating from the theme center—was heavily inspired by classical architecture.[219] Some streets in the fairground were named after notable Manhattan thoroughfares or American historical figures, while others were named based on their function.[232] A central esplanade called Constitution Mall was planned as part of the fairground,[233] running between the Grand Central Parkway to the west and Lawrence Street in Flushing to the east.[234] A curving road named Rainbow Avenue connected the color-coded zones, linking the paths that radiated from the theme center.[221][233] At the eastern end of the mall was the Central Mall Lagoon, an 800-foot-long (240 m) elliptical lake with fountains.[148][233] In the southern half of the fairground, the Flushing River was dredged to create Meadow and Willow lakes.[235][148] Several of the fair's fountains had water jets with gas burners, which were illuminated by colored lights.[236]
Pavilions and attractions generally fell into one of three categories: exhibits sponsored by the WFC or private companies; government exhibits; and amusement attractions.[233] The WFC subleased the land to exhibitors, charging different rates based on the sites' proximity to major paths.[89] There were 1,500 exhibitors on the fair's opening day, representing about 40 industries.[221] Because the fairground was built atop swampy land, many of the largest buildings had to be placed on steel-and-concrete decks, pilings, or caissons.[237][238] Thousands of Douglas fir timbers were driven into the ground to act as pilings for the fair structures.[238][239] In addition to the pavilions and amusement rides, the fairground had a marina, as well as hundreds of fountains, toilets, and benches.[120]
The fair had about 375 buildings,[lower-alpha 2] of which 100 were developed by the WFC;[240] the commission reserved about 500,000 square feet (46,000 m2) for its own structures.[121] The buildings included design features such as domes, spirals, buttresses, porticos, rotundas, tall pylons, and corkscrew-shaped ramps.[241][242] Many buildings' steel frames were bolted together so they could be easily disassembled after the fair.[120] Most of the attractions were in the central exhibit area, covering 390 acres (160 ha).[113][161] The pavilions were mostly illuminated by artificial light;[242][243] most of the illumination came from 30 miles (48 km) of fluorescent lighting tubes, though some attractions used mercury lamps or fluorescent pylons.[244]
The Trylon and Perisphere theme center was designed by Wallace Harrison and Max Abramovitz;[245] the Trylon was a 610-foot (190 m) tower (originally designed to be 700 feet tall), while the Perisphere was a sphere 180 feet (55 m) across.[246][lower-alpha 3] Fairgoers walking to the north of the Theme Center on the Avenue of Patriots would encounter the Communications and Business Systems exhibits. The focal point of this area was the Communications Building, a large structure with a pair of 160-foot-high (49 m) pylons flanking it.[248][249]
The Community Interest Zone was located just east of the Communications & Business Systems Zone.[250] The region's exhibits showcased several trades or industries that were popular among the public at the time, such as home furnishings, plumbing, contemporary art, cosmetics, gardens, the gas industry, fashion, jewelry, and religion.[251]
The Government Zone was located at the east end of the fair, on the eastern bank of the Flushing River. It contained a centrally located Court of Peace, a Lagoon of Nations, and a smaller Court of States.[252][233] The Hall of Nations consisted of eight buildings,[233] which flanked the Court of Peace.[253] Countries could build their own pavilions or lease space in the Hall of Nations; some nations chose to do both.[254] The fair also included pavilions for 33 U.S. states and Puerto Rico;[255] most of these pavilions were located around the Court of States, which had a lagoon.[256][257] Many of the individual pavilions replicated notable buildings or architectural styles in each state.[233][258] The zone also included the New York City Building, which was surrounded by the Transportation Zone's pavilions.[259]
Southwest of the Government Zone was the Food Zone, composed of 13 buildings.[260] Its focal exhibit was Food No. 3, a rhomboidal structure with four shafts representing wheat stalks.[261][262]
The Production and Distribution Zone was dedicated to showcasing industries that specialized in manufacturing and distribution.[263][264] The focal exhibit was the Consumers Building (also the Consumer Interests Building),[265] an L-shaped structure illustrated with murals by Francis Scott Bradford.[266] Numerous individual companies hosted exhibitions in this region. There were also pavilions dedicated to a generic industry, such as electrical products, industrial science, pharmaceuticals, metals, and men's apparel.[267]
The Transportation Zone was located west of the Theme Center, across the Grand Central Parkway.[268] It was connected to the rest of the fairground by two crossings known as the Bridge of Wheels and the Bridge of Wings.[233] The focal exhibit of the Transportation Zone was a Chrysler exhibit group.[269] The Transportation Zone also included large exhibits by companies such as Ford Motor Company and General Motors, in addition to buildings for the aviation, railroad, and maritime industries.[270]
The Amusement Area was located south of the World's Fair Boulevard, covering 230 acres (93 ha)[271][133] or 280 acres (110 ha) on the east shore of Fountain Lake.[113] Unlike traditional fairgrounds, the Amusement Area at the 1939 Fair had no midway; instead, the fairground was divided into more than a dozen themed zones.[107][272] The Amusement Area contained numerous bars, restaurants, miniature villages, musical programs, dance floors, rides, and arcade attractions.[273][133] In general, the site was shaped like a horseshoe. The western shore of Fountain Lake contained Florida's pavilion and a military camp attraction, while rides and concessions were mostly grouped around the eastern side of Fountain Lake.[133] Due to the popularity of nude or seminude performances at the Golden Gate International Exposition (which took place concurrently), similar shows were presented in the Amusement Area.[274]
There were two focal exhibits that were not located within any zone. The first was the Medical and Public Health Building on Constitution Mall and the Avenue of Patriots (immediately northeast of the Theme Center), which contained several halls dedicated to health.[275][276] The other was the Science and Education Building, just north of the Medical and Public Health Building.[277] The administration building was at the western end of the fairground,[99] and there was also a Manufacturers Trust bank branch.[278]
Whalen predicted in late 1936 that these lines needed to be able to handle as many as 800,000 visitors per day, though he predicted an average of 250,000 daily visitors. As such, several public transit lines were built or upgraded to serve the fair.[280] A special subway line, the Independent Subway System's (IND) World's Fair Line, was built to serve the fair.[281] The World's Fair Line, a spur of the IND Queens Boulevard Line,[282] was dismantled after the fair ended.[283] The Willets Point station on the Flushing Line was rebuilt to handle fair traffic on the Interborough Rapid Transit (IRT) and Brooklyn-Manhattan Transit (BMT) systems.[284][279] A special fleet of 50 World's Fair Lo-V subway cars were built,[285] and the existing Q-type Queens subway cars were rebuilt to provide additional service on the Flushing Line.[286] A Long Island Rail Road station (now Mets–Willets Point) was built next to the Flushing Line station.[284] In addition, Queens-Nassau Transit Lines bought 55 buses to serve passengers heading to the fairground,[287] and a water taxi service traveled to the fair from City Island, Bronx.[288]
There were also several modes of transit traveling around the fairground itself.[289][290] General Motors manufactured 100 buses specifically for the fair;[291] Exposition Greyhound Lines operated the buses, which connected with each of the fairground's entrances.[289][290] The original plan called for two bus routes, though this was expanded to seven routes soon after the fair opened.[292] There were also tractor trains that traveled along the fairground's paths, as well as tour buses that gave one-hour-long tours of the fair. In addition, visitors could rent one of 500 rolling chairs, each of which had space for one or two people.[289][290] Boats also traveled around Fountain Lake (now Meadow Lake), stopping at seven piers.[290] For a fee, visitors could ride a 40-passenger motorboat across Meadow Lake to the Florida pavilion.[293]
Several highway and road improvements were conducted in advance of the World's Fair.[294] These included the completion of Horace Harding Boulevard,[295] the opening of the Bronx–Whitestone Bridge and Whitestone Expressway,[296] the extension of Grand Central Parkway,[297] and the widening of Queens Boulevard.[298] Markers were placed at intersections throughout the city to direct motorists to the fairground,[299] and several highways to the fairground were outfitted with amber lights.[300] The construction of the Queens–Midtown Tunnel was also expedited for the fair,[301] though the tunnel did not open until 1940.[302] Maps also touted the fairground's proximity to five airports and seaplane bases.[303][lower-alpha 4] During the fair, the Civil Aeronautics Authority temporarily banned most planes from flying over the fairground, except for planes taking off or arriving at the nearby airports.[304]
As announced in 1936, the fair was themed to "the world of tomorrow".[73][74] The colors blue and orange were chosen as the official colors of the fair, as they were the colors of New York City.[305] Each day at the fair was a special theme day, for which a special button was issued.[306] The fair's official seal depicted the Statue of Liberty with her torch. The seal was available in multiple color schemes, such as an orange-and-blue scheme and a white-and-silver scheme.[307] The fair's official flag was originally a triband with a blue bar flanked by orange bars; there was a white seal in the center of the blue bar.[308] During the fair, there were fireworks displays on the lagoon, as well as colorful searchlights illuminating Meadow Lake.[233]
Another theme of the fair was the emerging new middle class, leading a hoped-for recovery from the Great Depression. The Westinghouse Electric Corporation produced the film The Middleton Family at the New York World's Fair, which depicted a fictional Midwestern family, the Middleton family, taking in the sights of the fair.[309] The Perisphere's Democracity exhibition envisioned middle-class "Pleasantvilles" arranged around a central hub.[310]
The WFC established a music advisory committee for the fair in 1937, which was led by the conductor Allen Wardwell.[311] The music advisory committee proposed a music festival with performances at the fairground itself, Carnegie Hall, and the Metropolitan Opera House.[312] New York Times music critic Olin Downes was appointed as the fair's director of music in early 1938.[313] Downes selected Hugh Ross to organize recitals and concerts at the Temple of Religion.[314] The WFC also hosted a competition to select the fair's theme song.[315] William Grant Still won the competition with his song "Rising Tide",[316] a three-minute tune that was played continuously during the fair.[317] "Dawn of a New Day", one of George Gershwin's final songs, was also recorded for the fair.[318] In addition, the WFC's music department held a competition to select three songs that the fair's orchestra would play.[319]
In conjunction with performances on the fairground, music festivals were presented at Carnegie Hall and the Metropolitan Opera House in Manhattan.[320] The fair also had stage shows. For instance, Billy Rose staged his Aquacade musical show at the World's Fair,[321] and the fair had its own musical pageant called the American Jubilee.[322]
From the outset, the fairground was planned to include decorations,[323] particularly large murals, sculptures, and reliefs.[324] Initially, however, there were no plans to exhibit contemporary art at the fair.[325][326] After observers criticized the fair's lack of formal art galleries, Whalen agreed to include a community art center,[325] and the WFC also held art competitions for muralists and sculptors.[326] Several U.S. regional art committees selected 800 contemporary American artworks to be exhibited at the fair.[327] The Masterpieces of Art building displayed rare paintings spanning seven centuries,[328] and additional Old Master paintings were displayed there during the 1940 season.[329] In addition, foreign governments sponsored exhibits of sculptures and visual art in their respective pavilions.[330]
Whalen, who was determined that the fair should "not represent the work of any one person or school", employed 181 visual artists, designers, and architects.[331] Many of the buildings' facades were decorated with murals, commissioned by both the WFC and individual exhibitors[332][333] in about 100 colors.[334] There were about 105 murals at the fair,[197] which measured as large as 250 by 60 feet (76 by 18 m). The murals were executed in a variety of materials, such as metal strips, mosaic tiles, and paint. The WFC's board of design approved murals based on how well they harmonized with the surrounding buildings; for example, murals near the theme center were designed in muted colors, while murals on modern-style buildings were more colorful.[333] Although artists could design murals even if they were not part of a labor union, only union members could paint the actual murals.[335] The New York Times called it "the largest program of exterior mural painting ever undertaken",[333] while the New York Herald Tribune said that "never before has mural decoration been attempted on so large or lively a scale".[333] Works Progress Administration artists painted murals for the fair as well.[336] Ernest Peixotto oversaw the development of the murals and the fair's color-coding system.[337]
The fair also included 174 sculptures.[197] The largest statue at the fair was James Earle Fraser's 65-foot-tall (20 m) sculpture of George Washington,[338] which stood in the middle of the fair's Constitution Mall.[339] The Times credited Lee Lawrie—who oversaw the installation of the fair's artwork—with describing the sculptures as "an essential part of the fair".[338] Three of the sculptures were intended to be preserved after the fair: Robert Foster's Textile, Lawrence Tenney Stevens's The Tree of Life, and Waylande Gregory's Fountain of the Atom.[338] Textile depicted an abstract sheet-steel figure,[340] The Tree of Life was carved out of a 60-foot-tall (18 m) elm tree,[341] and Fountain of the Atom consisted of small ceramic figures.[342] Various temporary sculptures, many of which were made of plaster, were placed on buildings.[338]
Whalen saw the fair as an opportunity for corporations to present consumer products, rather than as an exercise in presenting science and the scientific way of thinking in its own right.[343] Products introduced or popularized at the fair included RCA televisions, a Crosley vehicle from 1940, and a Novachord organ manufactured by The Hammond Organ Company,[310] along with nylon, cellophane, and Lucite.[197] Other exhibits included Vermeer's painting The Milkmaid from the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam,[344] a streamlined pencil sharpener, a diner (still in operation as the White Mana in Jersey City, New Jersey), a futuristic car-based city by General Motors, and the first fully constructed computer game.[345]
Electronics were showcased at the fair. For example, the IBM exhibit displayed the Radiotype writing machine, and RCA displayed various types of machinery in a "television laboratory".[346] RCA and NBC agreed to host television demonstrations at the World's Fair.[347] These TVs displayed several programs, including the first televised Major League Baseball game; a program from WRGB-TV in Schenectady, New York; and performances of the play When We Are Married.[348] Westinghouse's exhibit featured Elektro the Moto-Man, a robot that talked, differentiated colors, and smoked cigarettes.[349] Bell Labs' Voder, a keyboard-operated speech synthesizer, was demonstrated at the fair.[197][350] Other futuristic exhibits included General Electric's home of tomorrow, as well as the 15 homes in the Tomorrow Town exhibit.[197]
For the 1939 season, there were at least 40 restaurants with a combined 23,000 seats, in addition to 261 refreshment stands.[351] Cuisine from 24 participating countries was served at the fair.[352] These included caviar in the Romanian and Polish pavilions; borscht, blini, and pelmeni from the Soviet pavilion; soufflés from the French pavilion; smorgasbords from the Swedish pavilion; and kebabs and honey desserts from the Albanian pavilion.[352][351] A New York Times article from 1964 characterized bicarbonate of soda as the 1939 fair's most popular soda.[353] The WFC also awarded quick-service food concessions to companies such as Childs Restaurants, Longchamps, and the Brass Rail.[354] The concessions included 80 hot-dog stands,[165] in addition to 59 soda stalls, 38 root beer stands, and 25 popcorn stands.[110]
The city government also appointed 36 inspectors to enforce food safety at the fair.[355] During the fair's first season, there were complaints that the food was too expensive;[174] one New York Times report found that restaurants were charging as much as $2.50 (equivalent to $54.76 in 2023) for à la carte meals.[354] For the 1940 season, there were 70 restaurants and 150 concession stands at the fair.[356] Throughout both seasons, the fair sold an estimated 16.2 million hot dogs, 8.3 million burgers, 5.1 million doughnuts, and 2.7 million cups of beer.[357]
The fair coincided with the 1st World Science Fiction Convention,[358][359] which took place at the Caravan Hall in Manhattan on July 2–4, 1939.[360] Sporting events throughout the New York City area were also planned in conjunction with the World's Fair.[361] In addition, on July 3, 1940, the fair hosted "Superman Day",[362][363] which included an athletic contest and a public appearance by an actor portraying Superman.[363] Broadway actor Ray Middleton, who served as a judge for the contest, is credited with having appeared in the Superman costume on Superman Day, but this is disputed.[364]
When the fair closed, the WFC initially predicted that the fair would recoup 38% of its cost,[365] but the fair ultimately recovered only 32% of its original cost.[366][367] In total, the WFC earned $3.9 million during the 1939 season and $3.4 million during the 1940 season.[368] The Bureau International des Expositions (BIE) retroactively recognized the 1939 World's Fair as an official World Expo, even though the BIE's rules specified that official Expos could run only for one year.[369] As late as 1943, the WFC still had one employee who was closing out the corporation's financial accounts;[370] the WFC was not formally dissolved until August 1944.[371] At the time of its dissolution, the WFC owed shareholders $19,069,764.[372]
Demolition began immediately after the fair ended.[216][373] The WFC had mandated that almost all structures be removed within four months of the fair's closure,[374] and the vast majority of structures were dismantled or moved shortly after the fair's final day.[375] Within a month of the fair's closure, many of the structures had been demolished, and workers were restoring the landscape.[376] Many of the copper cables were dug up and sold for scrap.[377] The fairground was converted into Flushing Meadows Park in 1941.[378] The park also hosted the 1964 New York World's Fair, which began on April 22, 1964,[379] and ended on October 17, 1965;[380] the site again reverted to park use in 1967.[381]
Seven structures were preserved as part of the park.[374][375][lower-alpha 5] The Japan pavilion was dedicated in September 1940[382] but was razed the next year because it did not meet the city's building code.[383] The fair's New York City Building was used as a temporary headquarters for the United Nations General Assembly[384] before again becoming a pavilion for the 1964 fair;[385] it has housed the Queens Museum since 1972.[386] The Carrier Corporation offered to donate its pavilion to city officials, who declined the offer.[387] The New York City Subway's Mets–Willets Point station continued to serve Flushing Meadows Park after the fair,[388] and it was also renovated for the 1964–65 fair.[389] The NYPD's Flushing Meadows precinct was disbanded in 1952,[390] but the Queens traffic division (which had been established to manage traffic during the fair) continued until 1972.[391]
Many of the rides from the World's Fair were sold after its closure to Luna Park at Coney Island.[392] The Parachute Jump was sold that same year and relocated to Steeplechase Park in Coney Island,[393] whie the Belgian Building was rebuilt at Virginia Union University in Richmond, Virginia.[394] The Ford Motor Company's "Ford Cycle of Production" exhibit was moved to Dearborn, Michigan.[395] The Bendix Golden Temple was disassembled and placed in storage for many years, but various proposals to reconstruct it have failed.[396]
World War II presented additional problems with what to do with the exhibits on display in the pavilions of countries under Axis occupation. Several countries in German-occupied Europe donated or lent their World's Fair exhibits to institutions across the United States.[397][398] Most of the Polish pavilion's items were sold by the Polish Government in exile to the Polish Museum of America, except for the monument of the Polish–Lithuanian King Jagiełło. which was reinstalled in Central Park.[399] A copy of the Magna Carta, displayed at the British Pavilion during the 1939 season, was kept in the U.S.[400][397] The U.S. government seized the Italian State Railways' train display and melted it down for scrap,[401] while it sold off binoculars from the Czechoslovak pavilion and wine from the Rumania pavilion to pay customs duties.[400]
When the fair closed, many among the European staff were unable to return to their home countries.[402][403] An estimated 400 workers were unable to return to their home countries because of the war, prompting U.S. representative John J. Delaney to introduce legislation in October 1940, allowing these workers to remain in the U.S.[404] The French pavilion gave rise to three French restaurants—La Caravelle, Le Pavillon, and La Côte Basque.[405]
When the fair was being developed, The Washington Post wrote in 1936 that the fair would give New York City a permanent public park, while the "visitors will get an eyeful beyond their fondest imagination and the hotel-keepers will get a pocketful" of money.[5] The Post wrote in 1938 that the fair would become "the cynosure of millions upon millions",[7] while The New York Times said the event "will still be a great fair" even if half the buildings were never built.[120] Another newspaper wrote that the fair (along with the Golden Gate Exposition) would be "two stunning examples of science in action".[406] Just before the fair opened, The Scotsman wrote that, despite the ongoing Nazi conquest of Europe, workers at the 1939 fair "still [believed] the world of to-day has possibilities of progress".[407]
Upon the fair's opening, a Washington Post writer praised the fairground's futuristic architecture and landscaping, even while stating that "there is also architecture on which the classicist can rest his peepers".[408] The New York Times reported that European countries regarded the fair as an opportunity to display "its particular political views before the American public under the guise of good-will and commercial display".[409] When the fair closed, the Baltimore Sun wrote in 1940 that "the World's Fair was devoted to the arts of peace, and this is time of war".[410] A decade after the fair, one writer for the New York Herald Tribune said the expo had "become for many of us a symbol of the past", in large part because of the war that followed.[411]
In 1964, one New York Times writer said the 1939 fair had been envisioned in an era "that had in its calendar no World War II, no Hiroshima, no Korea, no fires in Africa and Asia".[353] Robert A. M. Stern wrote in his 1987 book New York 1930 that "the fair was seen as little more than a transitory good-time place".[10] Design critic Paul Goldberger, writing about the fair in 1980, described the fair as significant both for the products introduced there, as well as for its architecture.[310]
To limit excessive real-estate development around the fairground, city officials requested in early 1936 that the neighborhoods around Flushing Meadows be rezoned as residential areas.[412] The Board of Estimate voted in 1937 to enact zoning restrictions around the fair, which prevented the construction of high-rise buildings around the site and created a buffer zone around the fairground.[413] The same year, the city restricted businesses from operating within 1,000 feet (300 m) of the fairground.[414] One New York Times writer wrote in 1938 that, although residential development in Queens was increasing, this was due to the presence of new transport links, rather than because of the fair.[415]
Grover Whalen predicted that the fair would attract 50 million visitors who would spend $1 billion in total.[416] The WFC projected in 1936 that it would lost $3.9 million if the fair recorded 40 million visitors and that it would earn at least $1 million with 50 million or more visitors.[417] Numerous retailers on Fifth Avenue in Manhattan renovated their buildings in advance of the fair.[418] Room rates at local hotels also increased in anticipation of increased business caused by the fair.[419] By May 1939, real-estate figures predicted that the fair would earn between $1 billion and $1.5 billion for the city's economy.[139] The New York City Council also proposed waiving sales taxes for exhibitors during the fair, though La Guardia vetoed the bill for being too vague.[420] The state legislature predicted that the fair would spur business throughout New York state.[421] Whalen predicted that the fair would increase total spending across the U.S. by $10 billion.[422]
An archive of documents and films from the 1939 New York World's Fair is maintained at the New York Public Library.[423] The National Building Museum in Washington, D.C., described the 1939 fair in its exhibition Designing Tomorrow: America's World's Fairs of the 1930s, which ran from October 2010 to September 2011.[424] In addition, the Queens Museum hosted a retrospective exhibit about the fair in 1980.[310]
The 1939 New York World's Fair has been dramatized in books such as David Gelernter's 1995 novel 1939-The Lost World of the Fair.[425] There have also been several nonfiction books about the fair, including Barbara Cohen, Steven Heller, amd Seymour Chwast's 1989 book Trylon and Perisphere[197] and James Mauro's 2010 book Twilight at the World of Tomorrow.[426]
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