Thermodynamic operation

一系統內給定狀態下的內能不能被直接量測。給定狀態下的內能可由一已給定其內能參考值之參考狀態開始，經過一連串熱力學操作（英语：Thermodynamic operation）及熱力學過程，以達到該給定狀態來決定其值。這一連串的操作及過程，理論上可使用該系統的某些外延狀態變數來描述，亦即該系統的熵 S、容量

（美国英语）.  Steinmann, Wolf-Dieter; Jockenhöfer, Henning; Bauer, Dan. Thermodynamic Analysis of High‐Temperature Carnot Battery Concepts. Energy Technology

Florida State University. Famu. [1 February 2023].  Mae. Non-Flow Thermodynamic Processes (PDF). courses.sens. buffalo.edu. [2 February 2023].  PTC-10

Stockar U, Liu J. Does microbial life always feed on negative entropy? Thermodynamic analysis of microbial growth. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1999, 1412 (3):

1016/0013-9327(77)90045-3. 49. Sari A, Tuzen M, Citak D (2012). "Equilibrium, thermodynamic and kinetic studies on biosorption of mercury from aqueous solution