行為

行為（粵音：hang4 wai4；英式英文：behaviour；美式英文：behavior）係指生物嘅動作、行動方式，響人同其他群居動物入面，有啲行為係叫做壞行為，而且冇人接受嘅。

行為既可以係有意識，冇意識，自願，或者非自願。

喺嚴格嘅學術研究上，「行為」一詞定義上係泛指由一個個體（個體可以係一隻生物，或者一嚿想像中嘅有智能人造物體）

「

喺某啲特定環境刺激之下作出嘅活動，而呢啲活動係能夠客觀噉量度得到嘅。

」

－「能夠客觀量度」即係行為淨係包啲周圍嘅個體可以觀察到嘅嘢，而唔包一啲腦內部發生嘅嘢。例如一個人諗嘢，「諗嘢」唔算一件行為，因為個人諗嘅嘢唔能夠由第啲個體直接觀察得到^{[註 1]}。

舉幾個例說明，以下係一啲對動物（包括人類）嘅生存同繁衍嚟講重要嘅行為^[1]：

食嘢係動物生存實要做嘅一樣行為：食草動物要食植物，而食肉動物就要食第啲動物；當一隻動物感知到有嘢食存在喺自己周圍環境嗰度（環境刺激），隻動物一般會開始作出一系列特定嘅動作－首先係佢會行埋去嚿嘢食度，然後用自己個口等嘅器官嚟咬嚿嘢食，將嚿嘢食吞落肚（量度得到嘅動作）－嗰串動作就係對嘢食而有嘅行為。順帶一提，有關一隻動物點樣對嘢食等嘅犒賞有反應，可以睇埋犒賞系統嘅相關內容^[2]。
玩就係一種喺冇危險嘅環境會有嘅活動：喺廿一世紀初嘅動物行為學上，「玩」嘅定義係指一隻動物喺處於放鬆狀態－唔肚餓而且冇獵食者等會對佢造成威脅嘅嘢（環境刺激）－嗰陣會做嘅一啲活動，涉及隻動物自發噉做出一啲對佢生存嚟講唔必要、唔認真嘅動作（量度得到嘅動作）；例如包括貓同殺人鯨在內等嘅多種動物噉，就出咗名好興得閒就去玩打獵，即係唔肚餓（唔受威脅嘅狀態）嗰陣自發噉走去搵獵物嚟殺（對生存嚟講唔必要），途中會得到快感。順帶一提，玩呢種行為俾某啲研究者指係一種進化上嘅適應－「得閒玩打獵」呢種行為長遠嚟講能夠提升隻動物嘅打獵技巧，令佢第時打獵更加成功，所以會有玩打獵嘅行為嘅動物個體比較有能力生存同繁殖，於是呢種行為就能夠通過物競天擇嘅考驗進化到出嚟^[3]。
戰鬥定逃走反應（fight-or-flight response）係動物喺有危險嘅環境－例如係撞到獵食者－之下會有嘅活動^[4]：簡化噉講，喺人同大鼠等嘅哺乳類動物當中，一旦隻動物探測到對佢生存有威脅性嘅事物－例如係獵食者（環境刺激）－佢就會驚；當一隻動物驚嗰陣，佢會有一柞明顯嘅生理變化－佢心跳同唞氣會加快，而呢啲生理變化會幫佢應付威脅，例如心跳加速會令隻動物嘅肌肉暫時多咗血用，而呢點有助佢做跟住落嚟要做嘅動作，包括係還手（戰鬥）或者快速噉走佬（逃走）呀噉（量度得到嘅動作）^[5]^[6]。喺包括人在內嘅某啲動物物種當中，驚仲可以引致面部表情出現變化－一塊表示驚嘅面會有多種特徵，例如係對眼好多時會擘到大一大（都係量度得到嘅動作）；順帶一提，驚嘅面部表情俾一啲心理學家指係一種進化上嘅適應，因為擘大啲對眼能夠幫助隻動物更加睇清楚周圍嘅環境^{[註 2]}，有利於佢探測周圍環境當中嘅危險或者逃生路線^[7]。

... 等等。

社會行為係指屬同一種物種嘅唔同個體之間喺行為上嘅互動。如果話一種物種有社會性（sociality），即係話呢個物種啲個體普遍都有社會行為，會形成複雜嘅群落，例如人、狼同狗以及係蜜蜂都係有社會性嘅物種－人會群居噉形成社會同社會組織；狼同狗出嗮名興成群聚居仲會成群打獵；而蜜蜂仲具有真社會性（eusociality），曉成個竇噉住埋一齊，有「兵蜂專心淨係負責保護個竇，工蜂專心淨係負責搵食同做雜務」噉嘅分工合作關係。

社會行為例子包括咗：

成羣打獵：指同一個物種嘅唔同個體合作（指大家一齊做出對大家都有利嘅行動），嘗試殺死單獨行動嗰陣殺唔到嘅大型獵物；例如狼就係噉，狼單獨行事嗰時頂櫳淨係會殺到兔仔等嘅細隻獵物或者食腐肉，但佢哋成羣噉上嗰時就可以彼此之間互相協調，例如其中兩隻狼負責追趕啲獵物，另外幾隻就喺啲獵物嘅逃生路線嗰度伏啲獵物，而佢哋噉樣做就會殺到好似駝鹿噉嘅大型獵物（成年駝鹿身長閒閒地係狼嘅兩倍）^[8]^[9]。除咗狼之外，成羣打獵呢種行為喺獅子同人身上都可以睇得到。
攻擊性：指一隻動物個體對第啲個體造成傷害嘅行為；响最直接嗰種情況當中，攻擊係物理性嘅，涉及攻擊方用自己嘅肌肉施力喺對方嘅身上，令對方受傷，即係例如「一拳打爆對方塊面」噉^[10]；攻擊性唔一定係想攞對方命或者想對對方造成嚴重傷害嘅，例如好多動物物種嘅公都會喺啲乸面前打交，打贏咗嘅公隻乸就會鍾意佢，令佢得到交配嘅機會，不過喺呢個過程當中啲公通常都唔會想攞對手嘅命或者對對手造成永久性嘅傷害^[11]。睇埋犯罪行為。
求偶：最基本上係指動物當中搵對象交配嘅過程，例如响孔雀當中，啲孔雀公會開屏嚟吸引啲乸，而啲乸通常都會想揀開起屏上嚟最大最靚嘅公做交配嘅對象^[12]。喺某啲物種嘅動物裏面，求偶可以涉及好複雜同儀式性嘅行為^[13]。

... 呀噉。順帶一提，對社會行為嘅研究同分析好多時都會用到博弈論（睇埋進化博弈論）上嘅思考^[14]。

消費行為

消費者行為係一種人類先會展現嘅行為，定義係指^[15]^{:p. 7-8}：

「

原版英文："... all activities associated with the purchase, use and disposal of goods and services, including the consumer's emotional, mental and behavioural responses that precede or follow these activities."
粵文翻譯：（消費者行為係）... 一切同貨品同服務嘅購買、使用同掉棄有關聯嘅活動，包括消費者喺呢啲活動前或後嘅情緒、心靈同埋行為反應。

」

喺嚴格嘅經濟學上，消費係指「運用手上資源獲取即時效益嘅舉動」^[16]。

消費嘅過程會涉及好多認知同情緒變化^[15]^[17]。

健康行為

健康心理學係心理學一門，專門將心理學上嘅概念用落醫療健康相關工作，即係^[18]^[19]－

「

點樣改變人嘅行為，令佢哋做多啲對健康有利嘅行為（例如食蔬菜），令佢哋做少啲對健康有害嘅行為（例如食煙）呢？

」

More information 多種對健康有重大影響嘅行為 ...

多種對健康有重大影響嘅行為

食蔬菜同生果

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[註 1]
最少以廿一世紀初嘅科技嚟講係觀察唔到。有關「要點樣觀察一個個體諗嘢」，可以睇吓神經造影同腦機介面等嘅概念。
[註 2]
呢點對於好似人類呢啲以視覺為主要感官嘅動物嚟講零舍重要。

Davis, R., Campbell, R., Hildon, Z., Hobbs, L., & Michie, S. (2015). Theories of behaviour and behaviour change across the social and behavioural sciences: a scoping review. Health psychology review, 9(3), 323-344.

[1]
Elizabeth A. Minton, Lynn R. Khale (2014). Belief Systems, Religion, and Behavioral Economics. New York: Business Expert Press LLC.
[2]
Blechert, J., Klackl, J., Miedl, S. F., & Wilhelm, F. H. (2016). To eat or not to eat: Effects of food availability on reward system activity during food picture viewing (PDF). Appetite, 99, 254-261.
[3]
Burghardt, G. M. (2005). The genesis of animal play: Testing the limits. MIT Press.
[4]
Cannon, Walter (1932). Wisdom of the Body. United States: W.W. Norton & Company.
[5]
McNaughton, N., & Corr, P. J. (2004). A two-dimensional neuropsychology of defense: fear/anxiety and defensive distance. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 28(3), 285-305.
[6]
McNaughton, N., & Corr, P. J. (2008). The neuropsychology of fear and anxiety: A foundation for Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory.
[7]
Rinn, William E. (1984). "The Neuropsychology of Facial Expression: A Review of the Neurological and Psychological Mechanisms for Producing Facial Expressions". Psychological Bulletin. 95 (1): 52–77.
[8]
Capitani, C. L. A. U. D. I. A., Bertelli, I., Varuzza, P., Scandura, M., & Apollonio, M. (2004). A comparative analysis of wolf (Canis lupus) diet in three different Italian ecosystems. Mammalian Biology, 69(1), 1-10.
[9]
Barja, I. (2009). Prey and prey-age preference by the Iberian wolf Canis lupus signatus in a multiple-prey ecosystem. Wildlife Biology, 15(2), 147-154.
[10]
Miczek, Klaus A.; Almeida, Rosa M. M. de; Kravitz, Edward A.; Rissman, Emilie F.; Boer, Sietse F. de; Raine, Adrian (31 October 2007). "Neurobiology of Escalated Aggression and Violence". Journal of Neuroscience. 27 (44): 11803–11806.
[11]
Muller, Martin N; Wrangham, Richard W (2004). "Dominance, aggression and testosterone in wild chimpanzees: A test of the 'challenge hypothesis'". Animal Behaviour. 67: 113-23.
[12]
Loyau, Adeline; Jalme, Michel Saint; Sorci, Gabriele (September 2005). "Intra- and Intersexual Selection for Multiple Traits in the Peacock (Pavo cristatus)". Ethology. 111 (9): 810–820.
[13]
Tinbergen, Niko; Van Iersel, J. J. A. (1947). "'Displacement Reactions' in the Three-Spined Stickleback". Behaviour. 1 (1): 56-63.
[14]
Dugatkin, L. A., & Reeve, H. K. (Eds.). (2000). Game theory and animal behavior. Oxford University Press on Demand.
[15]
Kardes, F., Cronley, M., & Cline, T. (2014). Consumer behavior. Cengage Learning.
[16]
Black, John; Hashimzade, Nigar; Myles, Gareth (2009). A Dictionary of Economics (3 ed.). Oxford University Press.
[17]
Hoyer, W. D., MacInnis, D. J., & Pieters, R. (2012). Consumer behavior. Cengage Learning.
[18]
Tanton, J., Dodd, L. J., Woodfield, L., & Mabhala, M. (2015). Eating behaviours of British university students: A cluster analysis on a neglected issue. Advances in preventive medicine, 2015.
[19]
Rayward, A. T., Duncan, M. J., Brown, W. J., Plotnikoff, R. C., & Burton, N. W. (2017). A cross-sectional cluster analysis of the combined association of physical activity and sleep with sociodemographic and health characteristics in mid-aged and older adults. Maturitas, 102, 56-61.

[1] [註 1]
最少以廿一世紀初嘅科技嚟講係觀察唔到。有關「要點樣觀察一個個體諗嘢」，可以睇吓神經造影同腦機介面等嘅概念。

[8] [註 2]
呢點對於好似人類呢啲以視覺為主要感官嘅動物嚟講零舍重要。

[2] [1]
Elizabeth A. Minton, Lynn R. Khale (2014). Belief Systems, Religion, and Behavioral Economics. New York: Business Expert Press LLC.

[3] [2]
Blechert, J., Klackl, J., Miedl, S. F., & Wilhelm, F. H. (2016). To eat or not to eat: Effects of food availability on reward system activity during food picture viewing (PDF). Appetite, 99, 254-261.

[burghardt2005-4] [3]
Burghardt, G. M. (2005). The genesis of animal play: Testing the limits. MIT Press.

[5] [4]
Cannon, Walter (1932). Wisdom of the Body. United States: W.W. Norton & Company.

[6] [5]
McNaughton, N., & Corr, P. J. (2004). A two-dimensional neuropsychology of defense: fear/anxiety and defensive distance. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 28(3), 285-305.

[7] [6]
McNaughton, N., & Corr, P. J. (2008). The neuropsychology of fear and anxiety: A foundation for Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory.

[9] [7]
Rinn, William E. (1984). "The Neuropsychology of Facial Expression: A Review of the Neurological and Psychological Mechanisms for Producing Facial Expressions". Psychological Bulletin. 95 (1): 52–77.

[10] [8]
Capitani, C. L. A. U. D. I. A., Bertelli, I., Varuzza, P., Scandura, M., & Apollonio, M. (2004). A comparative analysis of wolf (Canis lupus) diet in three different Italian ecosystems. Mammalian Biology, 69(1), 1-10.

[11] [9]
Barja, I. (2009). Prey and prey-age preference by the Iberian wolf Canis lupus signatus in a multiple-prey ecosystem. Wildlife Biology, 15(2), 147-154.

[12] [10]
Miczek, Klaus A.; Almeida, Rosa M. M. de; Kravitz, Edward A.; Rissman, Emilie F.; Boer, Sietse F. de; Raine, Adrian (31 October 2007). "Neurobiology of Escalated Aggression and Violence". Journal of Neuroscience. 27 (44): 11803–11806.

[13] [11]
Muller, Martin N; Wrangham, Richard W (2004). "Dominance, aggression and testosterone in wild chimpanzees: A test of the 'challenge hypothesis'". Animal Behaviour. 67: 113-23.

[14] [12]
Loyau, Adeline; Jalme, Michel Saint; Sorci, Gabriele (September 2005). "Intra- and Intersexual Selection for Multiple Traits in the Peacock (Pavo cristatus)". Ethology. 111 (9): 810–820.

[15] [13]
Tinbergen, Niko; Van Iersel, J. J. A. (1947). "'Displacement Reactions' in the Three-Spined Stickleback". Behaviour. 1 (1): 56-63.

[16] [14]
Dugatkin, L. A., & Reeve, H. K. (Eds.). (2000). Game theory and animal behavior. Oxford University Press on Demand.

[kardes2014-17] [15]
Kardes, F., Cronley, M., & Cline, T. (2014). Consumer behavior. Cengage Learning.

[18] [16]
Black, John; Hashimzade, Nigar; Myles, Gareth (2009). A Dictionary of Economics (3 ed.). Oxford University Press.

[19] [17]
Hoyer, W. D., MacInnis, D. J., & Pieters, R. (2012). Consumer behavior. Cengage Learning.

[Tanton2015-20] [18]
Tanton, J., Dodd, L. J., Woodfield, L., & Mabhala, M. (2015). Eating behaviours of British university students: A cluster analysis on a neglected issue. Advances in preventive medicine, 2015.

[21] [19]
Rayward, A. T., Duncan, M. J., Brown, W. J., Plotnikoff, R. C., & Burton, N. W. (2017). A cross-sectional cluster analysis of the combined association of physical activity and sleep with sociodemographic and health characteristics in mid-aged and older adults. Maturitas, 102, 56-61.

[註 1]

[1]

[2]

[3]

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[註 2]

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消費行為

健康行為

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行為

消費行為

健康行為

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