天主教會

天主教會又叫羅馬天主敎（拉丁文：Ecclesia Catholica Romana；英文：Roman Catholic Church），簡稱天主敎（拉丁文：Ecclesia Catholica），或者叫公教，係世界上最大嘅基督敎會。根據敎會統計年報（Statistical Yearbook of the Church），2004年有 1,098,366,000 信眾，而聯合國報稱嗰年世界人口有 6,388,500,000。羅馬天主敎個阿頭係教宗，即係羅馬主教，家下係敎宗方濟。

敎會界定自己係承繼伯多祿嘅天主敎會，係耶穌基督拯救世人嘅唯一、神聖、普世同使徒嘅敎會。

羅馬天主教自信係源自耶穌基督嘅正宗，論據來自瑪竇福音第十六章18節，耶穌同伯多祿講：｢你是伯多祿（磐石），我要將我的教會建立在這磐石上。｣伯多祿喺瑪竇福音嘅名，喺巴勒斯坦地區嘅亞拉美文係「刻法」（Cephas），喺亞拉美文正係「磐石」嘅意思，所以佢哋相信伯多祿係羅馬第一位主教，一直承傳到而家。而伯多祿啲繼承者，就係俾人叫做教宗嘅人，係全球天主教嘅最高領袖。

羅馬天主教會嘅統治範圍曾經俾人叫做教宗國，直到而家，教宗依然係梵蒂岡嘅元首。

「天主教」呢個詞（源自希臘文：καθολικός，羅馬拼音：katholikos，意思係｢普世｣），第一次用嚟形容教會，係喺二世紀初期。^[3] 最早知道嘅「天主教會」呢個詞嘅用法（希臘文：καθολικὴ ἐκκλησία，羅馬拼音：katholikḕ ekklēsía），係安提阿嘅依納爵喺大約公元110年寫畀士每拿信徒嘅信裡面用到。^{[註 1]} 佢話：「主教出現嘅地方，信徒就喺嗰度，好似耶穌喺嗰度，普世（katholike）教會就喺嗰度。」^[4] 喺耶路撒冷的西里尔公元大約350年嘅《教理講道》入面，呢個名「天主教會」就用嚟區分其他同樣自稱為「教會」嘅團體。^[4]^[5] 「天主教」呢個概念喺公元380年狄奧多西一世頒布《德菲德天主教諭令》時更加強調。狄奧多西一世係最後一個統治東西羅馬帝國嘅皇帝，佢建立咗羅馬帝國國教。^[6]自從公元1054年嘅東西教會大分裂以嚟，東正教會使用「正教」做佢哋嘅特有形容詞，佢哋嘅官方名稱仍然係「正統天主教會」。^[7] 喺16世紀宗教改革之後，拉丁教會被稱為「天主教」，呢個稱呼亦形容咗啲同聖座仍保持共融嘅教會，至於同聖座失去共融嘅就被稱為新教徒。^[8]^[9]而「羅馬教會」呢個詞自從西羅馬帝國滅亡同中世紀初期（6至10世紀）起，用嚟形容教宗嘅羅馬教區，而「羅馬天主教會」呢個詞自16世紀宗教改革之後，已經喺英文裡面用嚟形容整個教會。^[10] 進一步講，啲人有時會用「羅馬天主教」嚟區分東方天主教會同拉丁教會。^[11]

中世紀同文藝復興時期

天主教會由晚期古代到現代初期，一直係西方文明嘅主要影響力。^[12] 佢係羅馬式、哥特式、文藝復興式、風格主義同巴洛克式藝術、建築同音樂嘅主要贊助者。^[13] 文藝復興時期嘅藝術家好似拉斐爾、米開朗基羅、達文西、波提切利、安吉利科修士、丁托列托、提香、貝尼尼同卡拉瓦喬，都係教會贊助嘅眾多視覺藝術家嘅例子。^[14] 史丹福大學嘅歷史學家Paul Legutko話，天主教會「係發展我哋所謂西方文明嘅價值觀、思想、科學、法律同制度嘅中心」。^[15]

喺西方基督教世界，歐洲最早嘅大學係由修士創辦嘅。^[16]^[17]^[18] 由11世紀開始，幾間舊嘅大教堂學校變成咗大學，好似牛津大學、巴黎大學同博洛尼亞大學。之前嘅高等教育一直都係由基督教大教堂學校或修道院學校負責，由修士同修女主導。呢啲學校嘅證據可以追溯到公元6世紀。^[19] 呢啲新嘅大學擴大咗課程，包括咗神職人員、律師、公務員同醫生嘅學術課程。^[20] 大學通常被認為係源於中世紀基督教環境嘅機構。^[21]^[22]^[23]

7世紀中期大規模嘅伊斯蘭入侵，開始咗基督教同伊斯蘭教喺地中海盆地嘅長期鬥爭。拜占庭帝國好快就失去咗耶路撒冷、亞歷山大里亞同安提阿嘅東方宗主教嘅土地，縮減到只剩下帝國首都嘅君士坦丁堡。由於伊斯蘭統治咗地中海，遠離呢個海嘅法蘭克國家，就成為咗塑造中世紀西歐嘅主要力量。^[24] 圖盧茲戰役同布瓦捷戰役阻止咗伊斯蘭教喺西方嘅推進，而君士坦丁堡圍城失敗阻止咗佢喺東方嘅推進。兩三十年之後，喺751年，拜占庭帝國失去咗拉維納呢個城市畀倫巴底人，呢個城市原本係佢用嚟管理意大利嘅小片土地，包括羅馬。拉維納嘅失陷意味住喺752年選舉教宗斯蒂芬二世嘅時候，冇再需要一個已經唔存在嘅總督確認，而且教廷被迫要喺其他地方搵一個政權嚟保護佢。^[25] 喺754年，應教宗斯蒂芬嘅緊急要求，法蘭克國王丕平三世征服咗倫巴底人。之後佢贈送咗前總督轄區嘅土地畀教宗，開始咗教宗國。羅馬同拜占庭東方喺860年代嘅福提烏斯分裂期間會有更多衝突，當時福提烏斯批評拉丁西方加入咗「和子說」條款，之後佢就畀尼古拉一世開除教籍。雖然分裂最後和解咗，但仲有未解決嘅問題會導致更多分裂。^[26]

喺11世紀，索瓦納嘅希爾德布蘭德嘅努力導致咗樞機團嘅成立，用嚟選舉新嘅教宗，由1061年嘅教宗選舉選出嘅亞歷山大二世開始。當亞歷山大二世死咗之後，希爾德布蘭德被選舉繼承佢，成為咗格里高利七世。格里高利七世幫手建立嘅樞機團基本選舉制度一直延續到21世紀。教宗格里高利七世又發起咗格里高利改革，關於神職人員獨立於世俗權力。呢個導致咗教會同神聖羅馬帝國皇帝之間嘅冊封權爭議，爭論邊個有權力委任主教同教宗。^[27]^[28]

喺1095年，拜占庭皇帝亞歷克修斯一世向烏爾巴努斯二世求助，對抗拜占庭-塞爾柱戰爭中再次入侵嘅穆斯林，^[29] 呢個導致烏爾巴努斯發動咗第一次十字軍東征，目的係幫助拜占庭帝國同重奪基督教對聖地嘅控制。^[30] 喺11世紀嘅基督教，主要係希臘教會同拉丁教會之間嘅緊張關係喺東西教會大分裂中分離咗佢哋，部分原因係關於教宗權力嘅衝突。第四次十字軍東征同叛變嘅十字軍掠奪君士坦丁堡成為咗最後嘅破裂。^[31] 喺呢個時代，法國嘅偉大哥特式大教堂係人民對基督教信仰嘅自豪感嘅表現。

喺13世紀初期，方濟各·亞西西同聖道明創立咗托缽修會。托缽修會嘅「修道院研究」同「公學」喺將教會資助嘅大教堂學校同皇宮學校（好似查理曼喺亞琛嘅學校）轉變成歐洲著名嘅大學嘅過程中扮演咗重要角色。^[32] 經院哲學神學家同哲學家，例如多明我會嘅神父托馬斯·阿奎那，喺呢啲公學度研究同教書。阿奎那嘅《神學大全》係一個智力里程碑，將古希臘哲學家好似柏拉圖同亞里士多德嘅遺產同基督教啟示嘅內容綜合起來。^[33]

14世紀出現咗越嚟越多教會同國家之間嘅衝突。為咗逃避羅馬嘅不穩定，克萊門五世喺1309年成為咗第一個住喺南法要塞城市亞維儂嘅七個教宗之一，^[34] 呢段時期叫做亞維儂教廷。亞維儂教廷喺1376年教宗返回羅馬時結束，^[35] 但之後喺1378年就開始咗38年長嘅西方大分裂，有三個人分別喺羅馬、亞維儂同（1409年之後）比薩宣稱自己係教宗。^[35] 呢件事喺1415-17年嘅康斯坦茨大公會議大致解決咗，羅馬同比薩嘅候選人同意辭職，第三個候選人畀樞機主教開除咗教籍，之後佢哋舉行新嘅選舉，選出馬丁五世做教宗。^[36]

1438年，佛羅倫斯大公會議召開，重點係理解東西方之間嘅神學差異，希望重新統一天主教同東正教。^[37] 幾個東方教會重新統一，形成咗大部分東方天主教會。^[38]

大航海時代

15世紀開始嘅大航海時代見證咗西歐嘅政治同文化影響力喺全世界嘅擴張。因為強烈信奉天主教嘅西班牙同葡萄牙喺西方殖民主義中扮演咗重要角色，天主教透過探險家、征服者同傳教士，以及透過殖民統治嘅社會政治機制改變社會，傳播到美洲、亞洲同大洋洲。^[39] 亞歷山大六世將大部分新發現嘅土地嘅殖民權授予咗西班牙同葡萄牙，隨之而來嘅「贊助權」制度容許國家當局，而唔係梵蒂岡，控制新殖民地嘅所有神職任命。^[40] 1521年，葡萄牙探險家麥哲倫喺菲律賓製造咗第一批天主教徒。^[41] 喺其他地方，西班牙耶穌會嘅方濟各·沙勿略帶領葡萄牙傳教士喺印度、中國同日本傳教。^[42] 16世紀開始嘅法國殖民美洲建立咗一個講法語嘅天主教人口，並禁止非天主教徒喺魁北克定居。^[43]

新教改革同反改革

喺1517年，馬丁·路德（左），原本係一個奧斯定會嘅修士，發表咗《九十五條論綱》（右），詳細講述咗路德反對佢認為嘅天主教會嘅濫用同腐敗，包括佢哋出售大赦券，呢啲係一種可以減少購買者或者佢哋摯愛嘅人喺煉獄中嘅罪罰嘅證書。路德發表同發布呢份文件被廣泛認為係發動宗教改革嘅開始。

喺1415年，揚·胡斯因為異端而被火刑，但係佢嘅改革努力鼓勵咗馬丁·路德，一個喺當時德國嘅奧斯定會修士，喺1517年將佢嘅《九十五條論綱》送畀幾個主教。^[44] 佢嘅論綱抗議天主教教義嘅關鍵點同贖罪券嘅出售，加上萊比錫辯論導致佢喺1521年被逐出教會。^[44]^[45] 喺瑞士，慈運理、約翰·加爾文同其他新教改革者進一步批評天主教嘅教義。呢啲挑戰發展成為宗教改革，誕生咗絕大多數新教宗派^[46] 同埋天主教會內部嘅隱蔽新教。^[47] 同時，亨利八世向克萊門七世請願，要求天主教會嘅婚姻無效宣告佢同阿拉貢的凱薩琳嘅婚姻。當呢個請求被拒絕之後，佢通過咗《至尊法案》，令自己成為英格蘭教會嘅英格蘭教會最高統治者，刺激咗英格蘭宗教改革同最終聖公會嘅發展。^[48]

宗教改革導致咗新教施馬卡爾登同盟同天主教皇帝查理五世同佢嘅盟友之間嘅衝突。第一次九年戰爭喺1555年隨住奧格斯堡和約結束，但係持續嘅緊張局勢產生咗一場更嚴重嘅衝突 —— 三十年戰爭，喺1618年爆發。^[49] 喺法國，一系列被稱為法國宗教戰爭嘅衝突喺1562年到1598年之間，喺胡格諾教徒（法國加爾文宗教徒）同法國天主教聯盟嘅力量之間爆發，後者得到一系列教宗嘅支持同資助。^[50] 呢場戰爭喺克萊門八世嘅統治下結束，佢遲疑咁接受咗國王亨利四世喺1598年頒布嘅《南特敕令》，畀予法國新教徒公民同宗教寬容。^[49]^[50]

特倫托大公會議（1545-1563）成為咗回應新教運動嘅反宗教改革嘅推動力。喺教義方面，佢重申咗天主教嘅核心教導，例如變質同要求愛同希望同信仰一樣先可以得到救贖。^[51] 喺之後嘅幾個世紀，天主教透過傳教士同帝國主義廣泛傳播到世界各地，雖然佢喺歐洲人口中嘅影響力因為啟蒙運動期間同之後宗教懷疑主義嘅增長而下降。^[52]

啟蒙時代同現代時期

[註 1]
Quote of St Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans (c. 110 AD)

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B M. Leonard, Thomas (2013). Encyclopedia of the Developing World. Routledge. p. 1369. ISBN 9781135205157. Europe established schools in association with their cathedrals to educate priests, and from these emerged eventually the first universities of Europe, which began forming in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.
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Richards, Jeffrey (2014). [[[:Template:Googlebooks]] The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages]. Routledge. p. 230. ISBN 978-1-317-67817-5. {{cite book}}: Check |url= value (help)
[26]
Walker, Willston (1985). History of the Christian Church. Simon and Schuster. pp. 250–51. ISBN 978-0-684-18417-3. 原先內容歸檔喺10 March 2024. 喺31 March 2021搵到.
[27]
Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 107–11
[28]
Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 78, quote: "By contrast, Paschal's successor Eugenius II (824–27), elected with imperial influence, gave away most of these papal gains. He acknowledged the Emperor's sovereignty in the papal state, and he accepted a constitution imposed by Lothair which established imperial supervision of the administration of Rome, imposed an oath to the Emperor on all citizens, and required the pope–elect to swear fealty before he could be consecrated. Under Sergius II (844–47) it was even agreed that the pope could not be consecrated without an imperial mandate and that the ceremony must be in the presence of his representative, a revival of some of the more galling restrictions of Byzantine rule."
[29]
Riley-Smith, p. 8
[30]
Bokenkotter 2004, pp. 140–41.
[31]
Phillips, Jonathan (2005). [[[:Template:Googlebooks]] The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople]. Penguin Books. p. PT19. ISBN 978-1-101-12772-8. {{cite book}}: Check |url= value (help)
[32]
Woods, pp. 44–48
[33]
Bokenkotter 2004, pp. 158–59.
[34]
Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 122
[35]
Morris, p. 232
[36]
McManners, p. 240
[37]
Geanakoplos, Deno John (1989). Constantinople and the West. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-11880-8.
[38]
Collinge, William J. (2012). Historical Dictionary of Catholicism. Scarecrow Press. p. 169. ISBN 978-0-8108-5755-1. 原先內容歸檔喺8 September 2023. 喺31 March 2021搵到.
[39]
Koschorke, pp. 13, 283
[40]
Hastings (1994), p. 72
[41]
Koschorke, p. 21
[42]
Koschorke, pp. 3, 17
[43]
Lyons (2013), p. 17
[44]
Bokenkotter 2004, p. 215.
[45]
Vidmar, p. 184.
[46]
Bokenkotter 2004, pp. 223–24.
[47]
Fernández, Luis Martínez (2000). "Crypto-Protestants and Pseudo-Catholics in the Nineteenth-Century Hispanic Caribbean". Journal of Ecclesiastical History. 51 (2): 347–65. doi:10.1017/S0022046900004255. S2CID 162296826.
[48]
Bokenkotter 2004, pp. 235–37.
[49]
Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), p. 233
[50]
Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 177–78
[51]
Bokenkotter 2004, pp. 242–44.
[52]
Maxwell, Melvin. Bible Truth or Church Tradition, p. 70

[4] [註 1]
Quote of St Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans (c. 110 AD)

[1] [1]
John Meyendorff, Catholicity and the Church, St Vladimirs Seminary Press, 1997, ISBN 0-88141-006-3, p. 7

[2] [2]
Elwell, Walter; Comfort, Philip Wesley (2001), Tyndale Bible Dictionary, Tyndale House Publishers, pp. 266, 828, ISBN 0-8423-7089-7

[3] [3]
MacCulloch, Christianity, p. 127.

[CathEnc1910_Catholic-5] [4]
Thurston, Herbert (1908). "Catholic". 出自 Knight, Kevin (編). The Catholic Encyclopedia.第3卷. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 原先內容歸檔喺3 January 2024. 喺17 August 2012搵到.

[6] [5]
"Cyril of Jerusalem, Lecture XVIII, 26". Tertullian.org. 6 August 2004. 原先內容歸檔喺8 June 2023. 喺17 August 2012搵到.

[7] [6]
"Edictum de fide catholica". 原著喺8 February 2012歸檔. 喺9 October 2017搵到.

[8] [7]
"Eastern Orthodoxy" 互聯網檔案館嘅歸檔，歸檔日期31 May 2020., 大英百科全書線上版。

[9] [8]
"catholic, adj. and n." 牛津英語詞典線上版。牛津大學出版社，2014年6月。網站。2014年8月7日。摘錄：「喺東西教會分裂之後，『天主教』成為咗西方或者拉丁教會嘅描述詞，『正教』則係東方或者希臘教會嘅描述詞。喺宗教改革期間，留喺羅馬權威之下嘅教會繼續使用『天主教』呢個詞，而脫離教宗嘅教會就被稱為『新教』或者『改革教會』。呢啲教會大部分保留咗『天主教』呢個詞，賦予佢一個更廣泛、更理想化嘅意思，唔係指單一團體，而係指所有教會同聖徒嘅共融。」」參考完整嘅「天主教」定義可以睇呢度。

[McBrien-10] [9]
McBrien, Richard (2008). The Church. Harper Collins. p. xvii. Online version available Browseinside.harpercollins.com 互聯網檔案館嘅歸檔，歸檔日期27 August 2009.. Quote: "[T]he use of the adjective 'Catholic' as a modifier of 'Church' became divisive only after the East–West Schism... and the Protestant Reformation. ... In the former case, the Western Church claimed for itself the title Catholic Church, while the East appropriated the name Orthodox Church. In the latter case, those in communion with the Bishop of Rome retained the adjective "Catholic", while the churches that broke with the Papacy were called Protestant."

[11] [10]
"Roman Catholic, n. and adj". 《牛津英語詞典》. 原先內容歸檔喺25 June 2023. 喺24 October 2017搵到.

[12] [11]
Isaac, Brother André Marie, M.I.C.M. (5 June 2007). "What Does the Word Catholic Mean?". 原先內容歸檔喺1 December 2012. 喺19 September 2012搵到.

[O'CollinsPref-13] [12]

[14] [13]
Woods, pp. 115–27

[15] [14]
Duffy, p. 133.

[16] [15]
Woods, Thomas Jr. "Review of How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilisation". National Review Book Service. 原著喺22 August 2006歸檔. 喺16 September 2006搵到.

[17] [16]
Den Heijer, Alexandra (2011). Managing the University Campus: Information to Support Real Estate Decisions. Academische Uitgeverij Eburon. ISBN 9789059724877. Many of the medieval universities in Western Europe were born under the aegis of the Catholic Church, usually as cathedral schools or by papal bull as Studia Generali.

[18] [17]
A. Lamport, Mark (2015). Encyclopedia of Christian Education. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 484. ISBN 9780810884939. All the great European universities—Oxford, to Paris, to Cologne, to Prague, to Bologna—were established with close ties to the Church.

[19] [18]
B M. Leonard, Thomas (2013). Encyclopedia of the Developing World. Routledge. p. 1369. ISBN 9781135205157. Europe established schools in association with their cathedrals to educate priests, and from these emerged eventually the first universities of Europe, which began forming in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.

[auto-20] [19]
Riché, Pierre (1978): "Education and Culture in the Barbarian West: From the Sixth through the Eighth Century", Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, ISBN 0-87249-376-8, pp. 126–27, 282–98

[21] [20]
Rudy, The Universities of Europe, 1100–1914, p. 40

[verger1999-22] [21]
Verger, Jacques (1999). Culture, enseignement et société en Occident aux XIIe et XIIIe siècles (法文) (第1版). Presses universitaires de Rennes in Rennes. ISBN 978-2-86847-344-8. 原先內容歸檔喺13 March 2020. 喺17 June 2014搵到.

[23] [22]
Verger, Jacques. "The Universities and Scholasticism", in The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume V c. 1198–c. 1300. Cambridge University Press, 2007, 257.

[Rüegg,_Walter_1992,_pp._XIX-24] [23]
Rüegg, Walter: "Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in: A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages, Cambridge University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-521-36105-2, pp. xix–xx

[25] [24]
Pirenne, Henri (1980) [1925]. [[[:Template:Googlebooks]] Medieval Cities: Their Origins and the Revival of Trade]. Frank D. Halsey (trans.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 27–32. ISBN 978-0-691-00760-1. {{cite book}}: Check |url= value (help)

[26] [25]
Richards, Jeffrey (2014). [[[:Template:Googlebooks]] The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages]. Routledge. p. 230. ISBN 978-1-317-67817-5. {{cite book}}: Check |url= value (help)

[27] [26]
Walker, Willston (1985). History of the Christian Church. Simon and Schuster. pp. 250–51. ISBN 978-0-684-18417-3. 原先內容歸檔喺10 March 2024. 喺31 March 2021搵到.

[Vidmar107-28] [27]
Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), pp. 107–11

[Duffy78-29] [28]
Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 78, quote: "By contrast, Paschal's successor Eugenius II (824–27), elected with imperial influence, gave away most of these papal gains. He acknowledged the Emperor's sovereignty in the papal state, and he accepted a constitution imposed by Lothair which established imperial supervision of the administration of Rome, imposed an oath to the Emperor on all citizens, and required the pope–elect to swear fealty before he could be consecrated. Under Sergius II (844–47) it was even agreed that the pope could not be consecrated without an imperial mandate and that the ceremony must be in the presence of his representative, a revival of some of the more galling restrictions of Byzantine rule."

[rileysmith-30] [29]
Riley-Smith, p. 8

[FOOTNOTEBokenkotter2004140–41-31] [30]
Bokenkotter 2004, pp. 140–41.

[32] [31]
Phillips, Jonathan (2005). [[[:Template:Googlebooks]] The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople]. Penguin Books. p. PT19. ISBN 978-1-101-12772-8. {{cite book}}: Check |url= value (help)

[33] [32]
Woods, pp. 44–48

[FOOTNOTEBokenkotter2004158–59-34] [33]
Bokenkotter 2004, pp. 158–59.

[Duffy122-35] [34]
Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), p. 122

[McManners232-36] [35]
Morris, p. 232

[McManners240-37] [36]
McManners, p. 240

[38] [37]
Geanakoplos, Deno John (1989). Constantinople and the West. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-11880-8.

[39] [38]
Collinge, William J. (2012). Historical Dictionary of Catholicism. Scarecrow Press. p. 169. ISBN 978-0-8108-5755-1. 原先內容歸檔喺8 September 2023. 喺31 March 2021搵到.

[Koschorke13-40] [39]
Koschorke, pp. 13, 283

[41] [40]
Hastings (1994), p. 72

[Koschorke21-42] [41]
Koschorke, p. 21

[Koschorke3-43] [42]
Koschorke, pp. 3, 17

[44] [43]
Lyons (2013), p. 17

[FOOTNOTEBokenkotter2004215-45] [44]
Bokenkotter 2004, p. 215.

[Vidmar184-46] [45]
Vidmar, p. 184.

[FOOTNOTEBokenkotter2004223–24-47] [46]
Bokenkotter 2004, pp. 223–24.

[48] [47]
Fernández, Luis Martínez (2000). "Crypto-Protestants and Pseudo-Catholics in the Nineteenth-Century Hispanic Caribbean". Journal of Ecclesiastical History. 51 (2): 347–65. doi:10.1017/S0022046900004255. S2CID 162296826.

[FOOTNOTEBokenkotter2004235–37-49] [48]
Bokenkotter 2004, pp. 235–37.

[Vidmar233-50] [49]
Vidmar, The Catholic Church Through the Ages (2005), p. 233

[Duffy177-51] [50]
Duffy, Saints and Sinners (1997), pp. 177–78

[FOOTNOTEBokenkotter2004242–44-52] [51]
Bokenkotter 2004, pp. 242–44.

[53] [52]
Maxwell, Melvin. Bible Truth or Church Tradition, p. 70

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[2]

[3]

[註 1]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

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[42]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[46]

[47]

[48]

[49]

[50]

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[52]

中世紀同文藝復興時期

大航海時代

新教改革同反改革

啟蒙時代同現代時期

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中世紀同文藝復興時期

大航海時代

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