語言模塊，又稱為「語言官能 」，是人腦或認知系統中的一種假設結構，含有與生俱來的語言能力，最初由諾姆·喬姆斯基提出。目前關於大腦模塊化的研究正在認知科學和神經科學領域進行，不過目前的觀點相較於喬姆斯基和傑瑞·福多在1980年代所提出的觀點弱上許多。在今日術語中，模塊化指的是專門化處理：語言處理在大腦中是專門化的，這意指語言處理是局部發生在不同的區域，不同於像是視覺輸入這種其它類型的資訊處理。目前的觀點認為，語言既非發生在分隔的區域，也不是基於像喬治·萊考夫所提出的那種通用的加工原則，而是在某種程度上模塊化的，被認為是認知功能中的一個特定的認知技巧或認知區域。[1][2][3]
人腦中「語言專用模塊」的概念，起源於喬姆斯基的普遍文法 （UG）理論。由於對語言模塊性問題的理解不同而引發了爭論。[4] 但是，在文獻中存在一些共識，即認為模塊是以資訊封裝的方式處理特定表徵（ 領域特定性 ）（Bryson和Stein，2001） [5] [6] 。 [7] 應當對「解剖模塊性」和「功能模塊性」作出區分，前者認為在大腦中存在一個負責處理相關歷程的「區域」，而後者則取消了解剖模塊性，認為資訊封裝分散在大腦的各個部分中。 [8]
現有證據指出，沒有一個解剖區域專門用來處理語言。瓦達測試（Wada test）使用異戊巴比妥鈉來麻醉一個腦半球 ，結果表明左半球對語言處理至關重要。[9] 然而，神經成像的結果指出，語言處理並非只有單獨區域涉及，而是由許多不同區域涉及語言處理中的不同環節，[10] [11] [12]不只是存在於左半球。[13] 此外，個別區域似乎具有許多不同的功能。[14] 因此，在解剖模塊內發生語言處理的程度被視為輕微的。 然而，正如許多人所建議的那樣，即使語言處理是在整個大腦中進行，語言處理依然可以是模塊性處理[15] [16]。亦即，語言處理可以在功能模塊中進行。
一種用於證明模塊性的常見方法，是找到一個雙重分離。這會分成兩組，第一組是語言能力嚴重受損但認知能力正常的人，第二組則是認知能力嚴重受損但語言能力完好的人。[17][18][19] 雖然在左半球臨側裂區（perisylvian area）的廣泛病變，可能會使人無法產生或感知語言（完全性失語症），[20] 但是沒有一種已知個案，在面臨嚴重的非語言性惡化時，語言能夠完全完好無損。[21] 因此，基於這一證據，語言處理不能被賦予功能模塊的地位。
然而，來自發展研究（Development studies）用來支持語言模塊的證據也被提出（最著名的是史迪芬·平克[22]），即所謂「特定型語言障礙和威廉氏症候群之間的分離現象（dissociation）」，前者是語言混亂，而其他心智能力則不受影響，[23] 後者則是存在嚴重的心智缺陷，語言能力卻倖免於難[24]。更近期和實證性強的研究表明，這些主張可能不正確，因此大大削弱了對分離現象的支持。 舉例來說，布洛克[25]還有Mervis和Beccera的回顧工作[26]證明，威廉氏症候群患者的語言能力並不比失去語言能力的患者的預測表現還要好。 另外，關於特定型語言障礙究竟是一種語言障礙，還是病因來自更普遍的認知問題（如語音），有著相當多的爭論。[27][28][29][30] 因此，目前還沒有找到證明模塊性所需的證據，即保持完好的語言能力卻有嚴重的智力退化。因此，發展資料的證據幾乎無法證明語言處理發生在模塊中。
因此，雙重分離的證據未能佐證模塊性，雖然缺乏分離並不能證明模塊是錯的，但是該結果並無法從邏輯上推論出模塊性。
如果語言是一個模塊，它的確會是資訊封裝的。 然而，有證據表明事實並非如此。例如，在麥格克效應（McGurk effect）中，看著說某個音素的唇型，同時卻播放另一個音素，就產生了混合音素的知覺。[31][32] 另外，坦恩豪斯（Tanenhaus）、斯皮維-諾爾頓（Spivey-Knowlton）、埃伯哈德（Eberhard）和塞迪維（Sedivy）（1995年）證明，視覺資訊會介入句法處理。此外，假定的語言模塊應該只會處理與語言有關的資訊（即領域特定性）， 然而，有證據表明，用於輔助語言的區域也介入了運動控制[33]]和非語言的聲音理解。[34]雖然在低於當前成像技術的解析度下，仍可能會發生分離現象的處理過程，但是將所有證據綜合起來後，資訊封裝的根據就變得很薄弱。
另一種觀點認為，語言發生在一個更普遍的認知系統中。[35] 對此的反駁則是，人類語言似乎有著「特殊性」[36] 。這通常有著證據支持，例如所有教導動物人類語言的嘗試都失敗了（Hauser et al. 2003年），以及語言可以被有選擇地破壞（單一的分離現象）[37] 。這些證據表明，語言處理可能需要專用的計算。 理論家們沒有假設「純粹的」模塊性，而是選擇了一個較弱的版本，即在功能特定的神經電路和計算中，實現領域特定性。例如，按傑肯道夫（Jackendoff）和平克的話來說「我們不該以一個整體，而是以成分結合的方式來研究語言，其中一些成分是語言特有的，另一些成分則是根植於更普遍的能力」[38]
相關辯論仍在持續進行。
Schwarz-Friesel, Monika. Einführung in die Kognitive Linguistik. Dritte, aktualisierte und erweiterte Auflage. Francke. 2008. ISBN 3825216365. Fodor, J. A. (1983). The Modularity of Mind. Bradford Books. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA
Calabretta, R., Di Ferdinando, A., Wagner, G. P., & Parisi, D. (2003). What does it take to evolve behaviorally complex organisms? BioSystems, 69, 245–262
Wada, J., & Rasmussen, T. (1960). Intracarotid injection of Sodium Amytal for the lateralization of cerebral speech dominance. Experimental and clinical observations. Journal of Neurosurgery, 17, 266–282
Raichle, M.E. (1988). Positron emission tomographic studies of the cortical anatomy of single-word processing. Nature, 331, 585–589.
Binder, J., & Price, C. (2001). Functional imaging of language. In R. Cabeza and A. Kingstone (Eds.), Handbook of Functional Neuroimaging of Cognition (pp. 187–251). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
Robertson, D. A., Gernsbacher, M.A., Guidotti, S.J., Robertson, R.R., Irwin, W., Mock, B.J., & Campana, E. (2000). Functional neuroanatomy of the cognitive process of mapping during discourse comprehension （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. Psychological Science, 11, 255–60 Grodinsky, Y. (2006). The language faculty, Broca’s region, and the mirror system. Cortex, 42 (4), 464–468
Pinker, S. (1997). How The Mind Works. Harmondsworth: Penguin
von der Malsburg, C. (1995). Binding in models of perception and brain function. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 5, 520–52
Coltheart, M., & Davies, M. (2003). Inference and explanation in cognitive neuropsychology. Cortex, 39, 188–191
Moscovitch, M. & Umiltà, C. (1990). Modularity and neuropsychology: implications for the organization of attention and memory in normal and brain-damaged people. In M. F. Schwartz (Ed.), Modular Deficits in Alzheimertype dementia. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
Goodglass, H., & Kaplan, E. (1972). The Assessment of Aphasia and Related Disorders. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febiger
Levy, Y. (1996). Modularity of language reconsidered. Brain & Language, 55 (2), 240–263
Pinker, S. (1994). The language instinct: How the mind creates language, pp. 37–43. New York: W. Morrow
Bellugi, U., Marks, S., Bihrle, A., & Sabo, H. (1988). Dissociation between language and cognitive functions in Williams syndrome. In D. Bishop and K. Mogford (Eds.), Language development in exceptional circumstances (pp. 177–189). London: Churchill Livingstone
Leonard, L. 1998, Children with Specific Language Impairment. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press
Bishop, D. V. M. (1994). Grammatical errors in specific language impairment: Competence or performance limitations. Applied Psycholinguistics, 15, 507–550
Kail, R. (1994). A method for studying the generalized slowing hypothesis in children with specific language impairment. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 37, 418–421
McGurk, H., & MacDonald, J. (1976). Hearing lips and seeing voices. Nature, 264 (5588), 746–748
Carston, R. (1996). The architecture of the mind: modularity and modularization. In D. Green et al. (Eds.), Cognitive Science: An Introduction (pp. 53–83). Cambridge: Blackwell
Heiser, M., Iacoboni, M., Maeda, F., Marcus, J., & Mazziotta, J.C. (2003). The essential role of Broca's area in imitation. European Journal of Neuroscience, 17, 1123–1128
Saygin, A. P., Dick, F., Wilson, S. M., Dronkers, N. F., & Bates, E. (2003). Neural resources for processing language and environmental sounds: Evidence from aphasia. Brain, 126 (4), 928–945
Rumelhart, D. E., & McClelland, J. L. (1986) PDP models and general issues in cognitive science. In D. E. Rumelhart, J. L. McClelland, and the PDP Research Group (Eds.), Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition. Volume 1: Foundations. Cambridge, MA: Bradford Books/MIT Press
Pinker, S., & Jackendoff, R. (2005). The faculty of language: What’s special about it? Cognition, 95, 201–236
Pulvermuller, F. (2003). The Neuroscience of Language. On Brain Circuits of Words and Serial Order. UK, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Jackendoff, R. & Pinker, S. (2005) The nature of the language faculty and its implications for evolution of language (Reply to Fitch, Hauser, & Chomsky) Cognition, 97 (2), 211–225, page 223
- Altmann, G. T. M. (2001). The mechanics of language: Psycholinguistics in review. The British Journal of Psychology, 92, 129–170.
- Bauer, R. M., & Zawacki, T. (2000). Auditory Agnosia and Amusia. In M.J. Farah and T.E. Feinberg (Eds.), Patient-Based Approaches to Cognitive Neuroscience, (pp. 97–106). New York: McGraw-Hill.
- Breedin, S. D., & Saffran, E. M. (1999). Sentence processing in the face of semantic loss: A case study （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 128, 547–62.
- Breedin, S. D., Saffran, E. M., & Coslett, H. B. (1999). Reversal of the concreteness effect in a patient with semantic dementia （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 11, 617–60.
- Colledge, E., Bishop, D., Koeppen-Schomerus, G., Price, T., Happe, F., Eley, T., Dale, P. S., & Plomin, R. (2002). The structure of language abilities at 4 years: A twin study. Developmental Psychology, 38, 749–757.
- Dapretto, M., & Bookheimer, S. Y. (1999). Form and content: Dissociating syntax and semantics in sentence comprehension （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. Neuron, 24, 427–32.
- Fodor, J. A. (1983). The Modularity of Mind. Bradford Books. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
- Garrard, P., Carroll, E., Vinson, D. P., & Vigliocco, G. (2004). Dissociating lexico-semantics and lexico-syntax in semantic dementia. Neurocase, 10, 353–362.
- Grafman, J., Passafiume, D., Faglioni, P., & Boller, F. (1982) Calculation disturbances in adults with focal hemispheric damage （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. Cortex, 18, 37–50.
- Griffiths T. D., Rees, A., & Green, G. G. R. (1999). Disorders of human complex sound processing. Neurocase, 5, 365–378
- Hauser, M. D., Chomsky, N., & Fitch, W. T. (2002). The faculty of language: What is it, who has it, and how does it evolve? Science, 298, 1569–1579.
- Hickok, G., & Poeppel, D. (2000). Towards a functional neuroanatomy of speech perception （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4 (4), 131–138.
- Hill, E. L. (2001). Non-specific nature of specific language impairment: A review of the literature with regard to concomitant motor impairments （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders / Royal College of Speech & Language Therapists, 36 (2), 149–171.
- Kahn, H. J., & Whitaker, H.A. (1991). Acalculia: an historical review of localization. Brain Cognition, 17, 102–15.
- Luzzatti, C., Aggujaro, S., & Crepaldi, D. (2006). Verb-noun double dissociations in aphasia: Theoretical and neuroanatomical foundations （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. Cortex, 42 (6):875–83.
- Marcus, G. F. (2006). Cognitive Architecture and Descent with Modification. Cognition, 101, 443–465.
- Marslen-Wilson, W.D., & Tyler, L.K. (1987). Against modularity. In J. L.Garfield (Ed.), Modularity in Knowledge Representation and Natural Language Understanding. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.
- Martins, I.P. & Farrajota, L. (in press). Proper and common names: A double dissociation. Neuropsychologica.
- Mattys, S. L., Melhorn, J. F., & White, L. (in press). Effects of syntactic expectations on speech segmentation[失效連結]. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance.
- Mattys, S.L., Pleydell-Pearce, C. W., Melhorn, J.F., & Whitecross, S.E. (2005). Detecting silent pauses in speech: A new tool for measuring on-line lexical and semantic processing[失效連結]. Psychological Science, 16, 958–964.
- Miozzo, M., & Gordon, P. (2005). Facts, Events, and Inflection: When Language and Memory Dissociate. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 17, 1074–1086.
- Moss, H. E., Abdallah, S., Acres, K., Fletcher, P., Pilgrim, L., & Tyler, L. K. (2003). The role of the left inferior frontal gyrus in semantic selection and competition. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 15, Suppl. A161.
- Patterson, K. E., & Marcel, A. J. (1977). Aphasia, dyslexia, and phonological coding of written words （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 29, 307–318.
- Poeppel, D. (2001). Pure word deafness and the bilateral processing of the speech code （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. Cognitive Science, 21 (5), 679–693.
- Raichle, M.E. (1988). Positron emission tomographic studies of the cortical anatomy of single-word processing （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. Nature, 331, 585–589.
- Rosselli, M.; Ardila, A. Calculation deficits in patients with right and left hemisphere damage. Neuropsychologia. 1989, 27 (5): 607–617. PMID 2739887. doi:10.1016/0028-3932(89)90107-3.
- Tanenhaus, M. K., Spivey-Knowlton, M. J., Eberhard, K. M., Sedivy, J. C., Allopenna, P. D., & Magnuson, J. S. (1996). Eye movements and spoken language comprehension （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. In the Proceedings of the 34th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics.
- Thomas, M., & Karmiloff-Smith, A. (2002). Are developmental disorders like cases of adult brain damage? Implications from connectionist modelling （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 25, 727–788.
- Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. (1992) The psychological foundations of culture. In J. Barkow, L. Cosmides, & J. Tooby (Eds.), The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館） (pp. 19–136). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Trout, J. D. (2001). The biological basis of speech: what to infer from talking to the animals. Psychological Review, 108 (3), 523–549.
- Vouloumanos, A., Kiehl, K., Werker, J.F., & Liddle, P. (2001). Detecting sounds in the auditory stream: Event-related fMRI evidence for differential activation to speech and non-speech. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 13 (7), 994–1005.
- Wang, E., Peach, R. K., Xu, Y., Schneck, M., & Manry, C. (2000). Perception of dynamic acoustic patterns by an individual with unilateral verbal auditory agnosia. Brain and Language, 73, 442–455.
- Warren, R. M., & Warren, R. P. (1970). Auditory illusions and confusions. Scientific American, 223, 30–36.
- Warrington, E.K. (1981). Neuropsychological studies of verbal semantic systems. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci., 295, 411–23.
- Zeki S. (2005). The Ferrier Lecture 1995 behind the seen: The functional specialization of the brain in space and time. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci., 360, 1145–83.
