James D.G. Dunn寫道,雖然使徒保羅的復活經驗是「在本質上是異象的」、「非物理的和非物質的」,但福音書中的記載是非常不同的。他認為,「(福音書)外表那種……巨大的現實性很難說是異象——而且路加肯定會拒絕這種不恰當的說法」,因此耶路撒冷基督徒團體最早的復活概念是物質性的[5]。相反,赫爾穆特·科斯特(Helmut Koester)寫道,復活故事最初是一種少數人經驗,再經過口耳相傳,門徒被復活的耶穌召喚去事工,並在第二個階段中被解釋為事件的物理證明。他認為,對復活更詳細敘述是一手的資料,是來自歷史上可信的來源,兼屬於敘事種類的類型[6]。
在他的著作《第一次到來:神的國如何成為基督教》中,托馬斯·希恩( Thomas Sheehan)認為,即使保羅對復活的描述也不是指從一個真實的、物理的身體從墳墓中復活,而且,身體性復活的故事直到十字架事件後半個世紀才出現[9]。相反,托馬斯·希恩認為,保羅對復活的理解(這也許是彼得的理論)是一個形而上的復活,它用(比喻上的)耶穌復活故事來說明他勝利地「進入上帝末世的情景中」[10],而且,保羅提到耶穌「在第三日復活」(哥林多前書15:4)「不是一個時間順序的指定,而是一個啟示性的象徵符號,象徵上帝末世的救贖行動,它嚴格來說沒有一個確切的歷史日期,因此『第三日』並不指代到公元30年4月9日星期日,或任何其他時刻。至於復活發生的『地方』,哥林多前書中的敘述並不是認為耶穌是從墳墓里復活的,好像這樣的復活是一個身體性的、時間性的復活一樣。『他在第三天復活』並不是指復活的超自然物理學,而是說,它相信耶穌從上帝完全缺席的命運(死亡)中被拯救出來,並和拯救的上帝同在(末世論的未來)」[11]。
對復活歷史性的懷疑及其他解釋
EarlyChristianWritings.com的創始人彼得·柯比(Peter Kirby)說:「許多學者懷疑空墓的歷史性」[12]。根據羅伯特·普萊斯(Robert M. Price),基督徒「護教者傾向於認為……耶穌的復活是歷史上得到最好證明的事件」,但「概率論」則表明「復活絕對不是一個一目了然的案件」[13]。Cypress學院哲學和宗教研究教授羅伯特·格雷格·卡文(Robert Greg Cavin)說:「我們唯一的潛在證據來源,即新約復活節傳統,遠遠不能提供建立復活假設所需的信息[14]」。
反對復活故事的歷史性也有各種其他的論據。例如,很多人指出很多其它歷史人物和神具有類似死亡和復活的記載[23]。但是,聖經研究學者的多數共識是,福音書的類型是一種古代傳記,而不是神話[24]。Robert M. Pricee聲稱,如果復活可以事實上通過科學或歷史證據來證明,那麼,復活事件將失去它的神跡的性質[25]。在一個更集中的觀點中,Carrier說,「流傳下來合法和具有歷史性的證據表明耶穌沒有在星期五晚上被正式埋葬」,但「星期六晚上埋葬必須被安排在一個專為罪犯預留的公共墳場裡」。根據這個理論,星期天參觀墳墓的那個婦女上午走錯了地方,看到了空墳墓[26]。
5世紀西奧多(Theodore of Mopsuestia)的神學讓人了解到基督教理解復活的救贖性質的歷史發展。在當時,聖禮在救恩的調解中的關鍵作用是被廣泛接受的。在西奧多對聖餐的討論中,犧牲和救贖的元素與「那位通犧牲自我而拯救和救贖我們的耶穌」結合在一起。西奧多對於聖禮儀式的解釋針對的是復活所帶來的對死亡力量的戰勝[55]。
James D.G. Dunn, Jesus and the Spirit: A Study of the Religious and Charismatic Experience of Jesus and the First Christians as Reflected in the New Testament. Eerdmans, 1997. p. 115, 117.
Peter Kirby, "The Case Against the Empty Tomb," In Price, Robert M.(英語:Robert M. Price); Lowder, Jeffrey Jay, eds. (2005).The Empty Tomb: Jesus Beyond the Grave. Amherst: Prometheus Books. p. 233. ISBN 1-59102-286-X.
Robert M. Price(英語:Robert M. Price), Robert M. Price(英語:Robert M. Price), "The Empty Tomb: Introduction; The Second Life of Jesus." In Price, Robert M.(英語:Robert M. Price); Lowder, Jeffrey Jay, eds. (2005). The Empty Tomb: Jesus Beyond the Grave. Amherst: Prometheus Books. p. 13. ISBN 1-59102-286-X.
Robert Greg Cavin, "Is There Sufficient Historical Evidence to Establish the Resurrection of Jesus?" In Price,Robert M.(英語:Robert M. Price); Lowder, Jeffrey Jay, eds. (2005).The Empty Tomb: Jesus Beyond the Grave. Amherst: Prometheus Books. p. 36. ISBN 1-59102-286-X.
Vermes, Geza (2008). The Resurrection: History and Myth. New York: Doubleday. pp. 142–148. ISBN 978-0-7394-9969-6。The quoted material appeared in 小型大寫字母 in Vermes's book.
Funk, Robert W.(英語:Robert W. Funk) and the 耶穌研究會. The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus.HarperSanFrancisco. 1998. "John the Baptist" cameo, p. 268.
Robert M. Price(英語:Robert M. Price), "The Empty Tomb: Introduction; The Second Life of Jesus." In Price,Robert M.(英語:Robert M. Price); Lowder, Jeffrey Jay, eds. (2005). The Empty Tomb: Jesus Beyond the Grave. Amherst: Prometheus Books. p. 14. ISBN 1-59102-286-X.
Burridge, R. A. (2006). Gospels. In J. W. Rogerson & Judith M. Lieu (Eds) The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 437
Robert M. Price(英語:Robert M. Price), "The Empty Tomb: Introduction; The Second Life of Jesus." In Price,, Robert M.(英語:Robert M. Price); Lowder, Jeffrey Jay, eds. (2005). The Empty Tomb: Jesus Beyond the Grave. Amherst: Prometheus Books. p. 14. ISBN 1-59102-286-X.
Richard C. Carrier, "The Burial of Jesus in Light of Jewish Law." In Price, Robert M.; Lowder, Jeffrey Jay, eds. (2005). The Empty Tomb: Jesus Beyond the Grave. Amherst: Prometheus Books. p. 369. ISBN 1-59102-286-X.
Bart Ehrman, From Jesus to Constantine: A History of Early Christianity, Lecture 4: "Oral and Written Traditions about Jesus" [The Teaching Company, 2003].
Terry Miethe in Did Jesus Rise from the Dead? The Resurrection Debate, ed. Terry Miethe (San Francisco: Harper and Row,1987), xi. Quoted by Michael Martin(英語:Michael Martin (philosopher)), "The Resurrection as Initially Improbable". In
The 『『Parousia』『 is the term used in the Bible, see Strong's G3952 (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館) for details, which includes theThayer's(英語:Joseph Henry Thayer) Lexicon definition: "In the N.T. especially of the advent, i.e.,the future, visible, return from heaven of Jesus, the Messiah, to raise the dead, hold the last judgment, and set up formally and gloriously the kingdom of God". According to the Bauer lexicon(英語:Bauer lexicon): "of Christ, and nearly always of his Messianic Advent in glory to judge the world at the end of this age".
Neufeld, The Earliest Christian Confessions (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964) p. 47; Reginald Fuller, The Formation of the Resurrection Narratives (New York: Macmillan, 1971) p. 10; Wolfhart Pannenberg, Jesus—God and Man translated Lewis Wilkins and Duane Pribe (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1968) p. 90; Oscar Cullmann, The Early Church: Studies in Early Christian History and Theology, ed. A. J. B. Higgins (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1966) p. 64; Hans Conzelmann, 1 Corinthians, translated James W. Leitch (Philadelphia: Fortress 1969) p. 251; Bultmann,Theology of the New Testament vol. 1 pp. 45, 80–82, 293; R. E. Brown, The Virginal Conception and Bodily Resurrection of Jesus (New York: Paulist Press, 1973) pp. 81, 92;Most Fellows of the Jesus Seminar concluded that this tradition dates to before Paul's conversion, c AD 33. Funk, Robert W.(英語:Robert W. Funk) and the 耶穌研究會. The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus.HarperSanFrancisco. 1998. Empty Tomb, Appearances & Ascension p. 449-495.
see Wolfhart Pannenberg, Jesus—God and Mantranslated Lewis Wilkins and Duane Pribe (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1968) p. 90; Oscar Cullmann, The Early church: Studies in Early Christian History and Theology, ed. A. J. B. Higgins (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1966) p. 66–66; R. E. Brown, The Virginal Conception and Bodily Resurrection of Jesus (New York: Paulist Press, 1973) pp. 81; Thomas Sheehan, First Coming: How the Kingdom of God Became Christianity (New York: Random House, 1986) pp. 110, 118; Ulrich Wilckens, Resurrection translated A. M. Stewart (Edinburgh: Saint Andrew, 1977) p. 2; Hans Grass, Ostergeschen und Osterberichte, Second Edition (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1962) p. 96; Grass favors the origin in Damascus.
Lorenzen, Thorwald. Resurrection, Discipleship, Justice: Affirming the Resurrection of Jesus Christ Today. Macon, Georgia: Smyth & Helwys, 2003, p. 13.pp3-4
Ignatius makes many passing references, but two extended discussions are found in the Letter to the Trallians(英語:Letter to the Trallians) and the Letter to the Smyrnaeans(英語:Letter to the Smyrnaeans).
Augustine and the Catechumenate by William Harmless 1995 ISBN 0-8146-6132-7 page 131。
耶穌復活Augustine De doctrina Christiana by Saint Augustine, R. P. H. Green 1996 ISBN 0-19-826334-1 pag.e 115
Lorenzen, Thorwald. Resurrection, Discipleship, Justice: Affirming the Resurrection of Jesus Christ Today. Macon, Georgia: Smyth & Helwys, 2003, p. 13.
Kurt Rudolph, Gnosis: The Nature & History of Gnosticism, page 190 (T & T Clark Ltd, 1970, second and expanded edition, 1980; 1998). ISBN 0-567-08640-2
Michael J. Cook, "Jewish Perspectives on Jesus", in Delbert Burkett (editor), The Blackwell Companion to Jesus, pages 221–223 (Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2011). ISBN 978-1-4051-9362-7; Gary R. Habermas, The Historical Jesus: Ancient Evidence for the Life of Christ, page 205 (Thomas Nelson, Inc., 2008). ISBN 0-89900-732-5
Van Voorst, Robert E (2000). Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence WmB Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 0-8028-4368-9 page 128
Michael J. Cook Jewish Perspectives on Jesus Chapter 14 in the "The Blackwell Companion to Jesus" edited by Delbert Burkett 2011 ISBN 978-1-4443-2794-6