第一次世界大戰期間的德國

第一次世界大戰期間，德意志帝國是最終戰敗的同盟國之一。在盟國奧匈帝國向塞爾維亞宣戰之後，它開始參與大戰。除了1914年東普魯士入侵的短暫時期之外，德國本土在大部分時間中仍相對免受廣泛入侵。皇家海軍實施的嚴密封鎖導致了德國城市的嚴重食物短缺，尤其是在1916-17年冬季。戰爭結束時，德國的失敗和廣泛的民眾不滿引發了1918-19年的德國革命，這場革命最終推翻了君主制並建立了魏瑪共和國。

1914年，與歐洲其他國家的人民類似，德國人民以復雜的情緒應對戰爭爆發。最近的研究挑戰了人們普遍懷有熱情（1914年精神）的理論^[1]。由容克地主統治的德國政府將戰爭視為結束被敵對國家法國，俄羅斯和英國包圍的一種方式。外交大臣伯恩哈德·馮·比洛指出，戰爭是為了使該國獲得「太陽下的一席之地」，公眾普遍的民族主義很容易支持這一點。德國當局希望戰爭能夠使公眾作為君主制國家團結起來，並減輕由德國社會民主黨的迅速發展所帶來的威脅，德國社會民主黨曾是戰前德國帝國議會中最有影響力的政黨。儘管德國社會民主黨加入了第二國際，但它結束了與帝國政府的分歧，放棄了國際主義原則，反而來支持戰爭。

事情很快證明，德國沒有為這場持續數月之久的戰爭做好準備。最初，在德國戰時基礎上沒有採取任何措施來調節經濟。而且在整個戰爭中，德國戰爭經濟的組織狀況仍然很糟糕。德國依賴食品和原材料的進口，但這由於英國對德國的封鎖而被迫終止。首先限制糧食價格，然後實行定量配給。1915年，德國為了生產糧食和保存穀物，豬玀屠殺中屠殺了500萬頭豬。 1916/17年的冬天被稱為「蘿蔔冬天」，因為馬鈴薯收成不好，人們開始吃動物的食物，包括品蘿蔔。在1914年8月至1919年中旬的戰爭中，由於營養不良，疲憊不堪，疾病和絕望率高而導致的平民死亡人數約有474,000人^[2]^[3]。

參考資料

[1]
Jeffrey Verhey, The Spirit of 1914: Militarism, Myth and Mobilization in Germany (Cambridge U.P., 2000).
[2]
N.P. Howard, "The Social and Political Consequences of the Allied Food Blockade of Germany, 1918-19," German History (1993), 11#2, pp. 161-88 online （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館） p. 166, with 271,000 excess deaths in 1918 and 71,000 in 1919.
[3]
Hew Strachan. World War 1. Oxford University Press. 1998: 125. ISBN 9780198206149.

延伸閱讀

Watson, Alexander. Ring of Steel: Germany and Austria-Hungary in World War I (2014), excerpt （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）

軍事

Cecil, Lamar, Wilhelm II: Emperor and Exile, 1900-1941 II, Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press: 176, 1996, ISBN 978-0-8078-2283-8, OCLC 186744003
Chickering, Roger, et al. eds. Great War, Total War: Combat and Mobilization on the Western Front, 1914-1918 (Publications of the German Historical Institute) (2000). ISBN 0-521-77352-0. 584 pgs.
Cowin, Hugh W. German and Austrian Aviation of World War I: A Pictorial Chronicle of the Airmen and Aircraft That Forged German Airpower (2000). Osprey Pub Co. ISBN 1-84176-069-2. 96 pgs.
Cruttwell, C.R.M.F. A History of the Great War: 1914-1918 (1935) ch 15-29 online free
Cross, Wilbur, Zeppelins of World War I, 1991, ISBN 978-1-55778-382-0
Herwig, Holger H. The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914-1918 (1996), mostly military
Horne, John, ed. A Companion to World War I (2012)
Hubatsch, Walther; Backus, Oswald P, Germany and the Central Powers in the World War, 1914–1918, Lawrence, Kansas: University of Kansas, 1963, OCLC 250441891
Kitchen, Martin. The Silent Dictatorship: The Politics of the German High Command under Hindenburg and Ludendorff, 1916–1918 (London: Croom Helm, 1976)
Morrow, John. German Air Power in World War I (U. of Nebraska Press, 1982); Contains design and production figures, as well as economic influences.
Sheldon, Jack. The German Army on the Somme: 1914 - 1916. Barnsley: Pen and Sword Books Ltd. 2005. ISBN 978-1-84415-269-8.

The militarism mean the countries need to develop military or army levels From 1880 to 1914,the military expenditure of the six bog powers(viz.Germany,Russia,Austria,Italy,France,and Britain)

國內戰線

Allen, Keith. "Sharing Scarcity: Bread Rationing and the First World War in Berlin, 1914– 1923," Journal of Social History (1998), 32#2, pp. 371–96.
Armeson, Robert. Total Warfare and Compulsory Labor: A Study of the Military-Industrial Complex in Germany during World War I (The Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1964)
Bailey, S. 「The Berlin Strike of 1918," Central European History (1980), 13#2, pp. 158–74.
Bell, Archibald. A History of the Blockade of Germany and the Countries Associated with Her in the Great War, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey, 1914–1918 (London: H. M. Stationery Office, 1937)
Broadberry, Stephen and Mark Harrison, eds. The Economics of World War I (2005) ISBN 0-521-85212-9. Covers France, UK, USA, Russia, Italy, Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and the Netherlands
Burchardt, Lothar. 「The Impact of the War Economy on the Civilian Population of Germany during the First and the Second World Wars," in The German Military in the Age of Total War, edited by Wilhelm Deist, 40–70. Leamington Spa: Berg, 1985.
Chickering, Roger. Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914–1918 (1998), wide-ranging survey
Daniel, Ute. The War from Within: German Working-Class Women in the First World War (1997)
Dasey, Robyn. "Women's Work and the Family: Women Garment Workers in Berlin and Hamburg before the First World War," in The German Family: Essays on the Social History of the Family in Nineteenth-and Twentieth-Century Germany, edited by Richard J. Evans and W. R. Lee, (London: Croom Helm, 1981), pp. 221–53.
Davis, Belinda J. Home Fires Burning: Food, Politics, and Everyday Life in World War I Berlin (2000) online edition （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
Dobson, Sean. Authority and Upheaval in Leipzig, 1910–1920 (2000).
Domansky, Elisabeth. "Militarization and Reproduction in World War I Germany," in Society, Culture, and the State in Germany, 1870–1930, edited by Geoff Eley, (University of Michigan Press, 1996), pp. 427–64.
Donson, Andrew. "Why did German youth become fascists? Nationalist males born 1900 to 1908 in war and revolution," Social History, Aug2006, Vol. 31, Issue 3, pp. 337–358
Feldman, Gerald D. "The Political and Social Foundations of Germany's Economic Mobilization, 1914-1916," Armed Forces & Society (1976), 3#1, pp. 121–145. online （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
Feldman, Gerald. Army, Industry, and Labor in Germany, 1914–1918 (1966)
Ferguson, Niall The Pity of War (1999), cultural and economic themes, worldwide
Hardach, Gerd. The First World War 1914-1918 (1977), economics
Herwig, Holger H. The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914-1918 (1996), one third on the homefront
Howard, N.P. "The Social and Political Consequences of the Allied Food Blockade of Germany, 1918-19," German History (1993), 11#2, pp. 161–88 online （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
Kocka, Jürgen. Facing total war: German society, 1914-1918 (1984). online at ACLS e-books （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
Lee, Joe. "German Administrators and Agriculture during the First World War," in War and Economic Development, edited by Jay M. Winter. (Cambridge UP, 1922).
Lutz, Ralph Haswell. The German revolution, 1918-1919 (1938) a brief survey online free
Marquis, H. G. "Words as Weapons: Propaganda in Britain and Germany during the First World War." Journal of Contemporary History (1978) 12: 467–98.
McKibbin, David. War and Revolution in Leipzig, 1914–1918: Socialist Politics and Urban Evolution in a German City (University Press of America, 1998).
Moeller, Robert G. "Dimensions of Social Conflict in the Great War: A View from the Countryside," Central European History (1981), 14#2, pp. 142–68.
Moeller, Robert G. German Peasants and Agrarian Politics, 1914–1924: The Rhineland and Westphalia (1986). online edition （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
Offer, Avner. The First World War: An Agrarian Interpretation (1991), on food supply of Britain and Germany
Osborne, Eric. Britain's Economic Blockade of Germany, 1914-1919 (2004)
Richie, Alexandra. Faust's Metropolis: a History of Berlin (1998), pp. 234–83.
Ryder, A. J. The German Revolution of 1918 (Cambridge University Press, 1967)
Siney, Marion. The Allied Blockade of Germany, 1914–1916 (1957)
Steege, Paul. Black Market, Cold War: Everyday Life in Berlin, 1946-1949 (2008) excerpt and text search （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
Terraine, John. "'An Actual Revolutionary Situation': In 1917 there was little to sustain German morale at home," History Today (1978), 28#1, pp. 14–22, online
Tobin, Elizabeth. "War and the Working Class: The Case of Düsseldorf, 1914–1918," Central European History (1985), 13#3, pp. 257–98
Triebel, Armin. "Consumption in Wartime Germany," in The Upheaval of War: Family, Work, and Welfare in Europe, 1914–1918 edited by Richard Wall and Jay M. Winter, (Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 159–96.
Usborne, Cornelie. "Pregnancy Is a Woman's Active Service," in The Upheaval of War: Family, Work, and Welfare in Europe, 1914–1918 edited by Richard Wall and Jay M. Winter, (Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 289–416.
Verhey, Jeffrey. The Spirit of 1914: Militarism, Myth, and Mobilization in Germany (2006) excerpt （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
Welch, David. Germany and Propaganda in World War I: Pacifism, Mobilization and Total War (IB Tauris, 2014)
Winter, Jay, and Jean-Louis Robert, eds. Capital Cities at War: Paris, London, Berlin 1914-1919 (2 vol. 1999, 2007), 30 chapters 1200pp; comprehensive coverage by scholars vol 1 excerpt （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）; vol 2 excerpt and text search （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
Winter, Jay. Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning: The Great War in European Cultural History (1995)
Ziemann, Benjamin. War Experiences in Rural Germany, 1914-1923 (Berg, 2007) online edition

一手資料

Gooch, P. G. Recent Revelations Of European Diplomacy (1940). pp3–100
Lutz, Ralph Haswell, ed. Fall of the German Empire, 1914–1918 (2 vol 1932). 868pp online review （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）, primary sources

外部連結

（德語） "Der Erste Weltkrieg" （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館） (in English) "The First World War" （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館） at Living Museum Online (LeMO)
Articles relating to Germany （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館） at 1914-1918 Online: International Encyclopedia of the First World War
- Hirschfeld, Gerhard: Germany （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
- Fehlemann, Silke: Bereavement and Mourning (Germany) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
- Bruendel, Steffen: Between Acceptance and Refusal - Soldiers' Attitudes Towards War (Germany) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
- Davis, Belinda: Food and Nutrition (Germany) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
- Oppelland, Torsten: Governments, Parliaments and Parties (Germany) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
- Stibbe, Matthew: Women's Mobilisation for War (Germany) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
- Ungern-Sternberg, Jürgen von: Making Sense of the War (Germany) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
- Ullmann, Hans-Peter: Organization of War Economies (Germany) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
- Gross, Stephen: War Finance (Germany) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
- Altenhöner, Florian: Press/Journalism (Germany) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
- Ther, Vanessa: Propaganda at Home (Germany) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
- Pöhlmann, Markus: Warfare 1914-1918 (Germany) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
- Löffelbein, Nils: War Aims and War Aims Discussions (Germany) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
- Whalen, Robert Weldon: War Losses (Germany) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
Germany and the First World War （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館） article index at Spartacus Educational
Posters of the German Military Government in the Generalgouvernement Warshau (German occupied Poland) from World War I, 1915-1916 （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館） From the Collections at the Library of Congress

[1] [1]
Jeffrey Verhey, The Spirit of 1914: Militarism, Myth and Mobilization in Germany (Cambridge U.P., 2000).

[2] [2]
N.P. Howard, "The Social and Political Consequences of the Allied Food Blockade of Germany, 1918-19," German History (1993), 11#2, pp. 161-88 online （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館） p. 166, with 271,000 excess deaths in 1918 and 71,000 in 1919.

[3] [3]
Hew Strachan. World War 1. Oxford University Press. 1998: 125. ISBN 9780198206149.

[1]

[2]

[3]