伊本·海什木

阿布·阿里·哈桑·伊本·哈桑·伊本·海什木（阿拉伯語：محمد بن الحسن بن الحسن بن الهيثم أبو على البصري‎，羅馬化：Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haytham，965年—1040年），一般簡稱伊本·海什木（阿拉伯語：ابن الهيثم‎），是伊斯蘭黃金時代的中世紀數學家、天文學家和物理學家。^[5][6][7]歐洲人稱之為海桑（又譯哈金，拉丁語：Alhazen）。他有大量著作和被現代科學證明了的科學發現，尤其在光學研究方面有突出成就，被譽為「現代光學之父」。^[8][9][10]他最具影響力的著作是《光學書》（Kitāb al-Manāẓir，阿拉伯語：كتاب المناظر），該書寫於1011至1021年，現存有拉丁文版。^[11]海什木的作品在科學革命期間被艾薩克·牛頓、約翰內斯·克卜勒、克里斯蒂安·惠更斯和伽利略等人頻繁引用。

伊本·海什木
伊本·海什木
出生	(965-07-01)965年7月1日[1] (伊斯蘭曆354 年)[2] 白益王朝巴斯拉
逝世	1040年3月6日(1040歲—03—06)（74歲）[1] (伊斯蘭曆430年)[3] 法蒂瑪王朝開羅
居住地	巴斯拉 開羅
民族	阿拉伯人
知名於	《光學之書》、《有關托勒密的疑點》、《世界的結構》、《運動模式》、《光論》、《地方論》等 科學方法、實驗科學、實驗物理學、實驗心理學、視知覺、解析幾何、天文學、天體力學
科學生涯
研究領域	物理學、數學、天文學
受影響自	亞里斯多德、歐幾里得、托勒密、蓋倫、巴努·穆薩兄弟（英語：Banū Mūsā brothers）、薩比特·伊本·庫拉、肯迪、伊本·薩赫勒（英語：Ibn Sahl (mathematician)）、阿布·薩赫勒·庫希（英語：Abu Sahl al-Quhi）
施影響於	奧馬爾·海亞姆、塔基丁·穆罕默德·伊本·馬魯夫（英語：Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf）、卡邁勒丁·法里西（英語：Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī）、伊本·魯世德、哈澤尼（英語：Al-Khazini）、約翰·佩卡姆（英語：John Peckham）、威特羅、羅吉爾·培根、約翰內斯·克卜勒

伊本·海什木是首位正確解釋視覺理論的人，^[12]並提出視覺發生在大腦中，指出視覺是主觀的，受到個人經驗的影響。他還闡述了折射的最短時間原理，這一原理後來成為費馬原理。^[13]他在反射、折射以及光線形成的圖像性質的研究中，對鏡面光學和透鏡光學做出了重大貢獻。^[14]伊本·海什木還是早期支持假設必須通過可驗證的實驗或數學推理來支持的科學方法論的倡導者—他被認為是科學方法的先驅，比文藝復興時期的科學家早了五個世紀。^{[15][16][17][18]}他有時被稱為「世界上第一個真正的科學家」。^[19]他也是一位博學多才的學者，涉獵哲學、神學和醫學等領域。^[20]

生平

伊本·海什木出生於965年7月1日（伊斯蘭曆354年）在伊拉克的巴斯拉城。被認為是在不同學科都有傑出的成績，如數學、天文學、醫學等等，他早期學習工程，讀希臘科學的書，和關於安達盧西亞學說的精華，接收並發展了這些學說。當時的埃及哈里發召集他參與控制尼羅河泛濫的工程，但是經過他的研究發現那是不可能實現的，從而招致哈里發非常憤怒。於是海什木就以裝瘋的方式避免了嚴重懲罰，轉而被軟禁，直到哈里發1021年死去。在此期間他完成了大量重要的數學論文。

科學成就

光學理論

古典時期流行著兩種關於視覺的主要理論。 第一個理論，即發射理論，得到了歐幾里得和托勒密等思想家的支持，他們認為視覺是通過眼睛發射光線來實現的。 第二種理論，即亞里斯多德及其追隨者支持的引入理論，認為物理形式是從物體進入眼睛的。 以前的伊斯蘭作家（例如金迪）主要是根據歐幾里得學派、蓋倫學派或亞里斯多德學派的觀點進行爭論。 對《光學之書》影響最大的是托勒密的《光學》，而對眼睛的解剖學和生理學的描述則基於蓋倫的敘述。伊本·海什木的成就是提出了一種理論，成功地將歐幾里得的數學射線論證、蓋倫的醫學傳統和亞里斯多德的引入理論部分結合起來。 伊本·海什木的引入理論追隨了金迪（並與亞里斯多德決裂），斷言「從每個有色物體的每個點，受到任何光的照射，都會沿著從該點畫出的每條直線發出光和顏色」。這給他留下了解釋如何從許多獨立的輻射源形成相干圖像的問題； 特別是物體的每個點都會向眼睛的每個點發送光線。

伊本·海什木需要的是物體上的每個點僅對應於眼睛上的一個點。他試圖通過斷言眼睛只會感知到來自物體的垂直光線來解決這個問題——對於眼睛上的任何一點，只有直接到達該點的光線才會被感知，而不會被眼睛的任何其他部分折射。 他用物理類比來論證，垂直光線比傾斜光線更強：就像直接扔向木板的球可能會打破木板，而傾斜地扔向木板的球會擦過一樣，垂直光線更強 與折射光線相比，眼睛只能看到垂直光線。 由於任意一點只有一條垂直光線進入眼睛，而所有這些光線都會以圓錐體的形式匯聚在眼睛的中心，這使得他解決了物體上的每個點向眼睛發出多條光線的問題。 如果只有垂直光線重要，那麼他就有了一對一的對應關係，並且可以解決混亂。他後來斷言（在《光學》第七冊中）其他光線會通過眼睛折射並被感知為垂直的。他關於垂直光線的論點並沒有清楚地解釋為什麼只能感知到垂直光線； 為什麼較弱的傾斜光線不會被感知得更弱？他後來關於折射光線將被感知為垂直的論點似乎沒有說服力。然而，儘管存在缺陷，但當時沒有其他理論如此全面，並且影響力巨大，特別是在西歐。 他的《光學之書》直接或間接地激發了13-17世紀光學領域的許多活動。 克卜勒後來的視網膜圖像理論（解決了物體上的點與眼睛中的點的對應問題）直接建立在伊本·海什木的概念框架上。

伊本·海什木通過實驗證明光是沿直線傳播的，並用透鏡、鏡子、折射和反射進行了各種實驗。他對反射和折射的分析分別考慮了光線的垂直和水平分量。

伊本·海什木曾研究了視覺過程、眼睛的結構、眼睛中的圖像形成和視覺系統。 伊恩·P·霍華德 (Ian P. Howard) 在 1996 年發表的《感知》文章中指出，伊本·海什木的許多發現和理論都有助於西歐人在幾個世紀後撰寫的著作。 例如，他描述了 19 世紀的赫林平等神經支配定律。 他比阿吉洛尼烏斯早 600 年寫了一篇關於垂直雙眼視差的描述，實際上比阿吉洛尼烏斯的定義更接近現代定義，並且帕努姆在 1858 年重複了他關於雙眼視差的工作。克雷格·阿恩-斯托克代爾（Craig Aaen-Stockdale）雖然同意伊本·海什木在許多進步方面取得了進展，但也表達了一些謹慎的態度，特別是在將伊本·海什木與托勒密分開考慮時，伊本·海什木曾與托勒密非常熟悉。 伊本·海什木糾正了托勒密關於雙眼視覺的一個重大錯誤，但除此之外他的描述非常相似； 托勒密還試圖解釋現在所謂的赫林定律。總的來說，伊本·海什木曾建立並擴展了托勒密的光學。

著作

流行文化

米哈遊發行的開放世界遊戲《原神》中的可操控人物艾爾海森以海什木作為原型。

注釋

1. Lorch 2008
2. Charles M. Falco, Ibn al-Haytham and the Origins of Computerized Image Analysis (PDF), International Conference on Computer Engineering & Systems (ICCES), November 27–29, 2007 [2010-01-30], （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2011-07-26）
3. Franz Rosenthal, Al-Mubashshir ibn Fâtik. Prolegomena to an Abortive Edition, Oriens (Brill Publishers), 1960–1961, 13: 132–158 [136–7], JSTOR 1580309
4. ^ 引用錯誤：沒有為名為mathsong.com的參考文獻提供內容
5. Also Alhacen, Avennathan, Avenetan, etc.; the identity of "Alhazen" with Ibn al-Haytham al-Basri "was identified towards the end of the 19th century". (Vernet 1996，第788頁 harvnb模板錯誤: 無指向目標: CITEREFVernet1996 (幫助))
6. Ibn al-Haytham. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language 5th. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. [23 June 2019].
7. Esposito, John L. The Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. 2000: 192.: "Ibn al-Haytham (d. 1039), known in the West as Alhazan, was a leading Arab mathematician, astronomer, and physicist. His optical compendium, Kitab al-Manazir, is the greatest medieval work on optics."
8. Masic, Izet. Ibn al-Haitham--father of optics and describer of vision theory.. Medicinski Arhiv. 2008, 62 (3): 183–188. PMID 18822953.
9. International Year of Light: Ibn al Haytham, pioneer of modern optics celebrated at UNESCO. UNESCO. [2 June 2018]. （原始內容存檔於18 September 2015） （英語）.
10. Al-Khalili, Jim. The 'first true scientist'. BBC News. 4 January 2009 [2 June 2018]. （原始內容存檔於26 April 2015）.
11. Selin 2008 harvnb模板錯誤: 無指向目標: CITEREFSelin2008 (幫助): "The three most recognizable Islamic contributors to meteorology were: the Alexandrian mathematician/ astronomer Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen 965–1039), the Arab-speaking Persian physician Ibn Sina (Avicenna 980–1037), and the Spanish Moorish physician/jurist Ibn Rushd (Averroes; 1126–1198)." He has been dubbed the "father of modern optics" by the UNESCO. Impact of Science on Society. UNESCO. 1976, 26–27: 140 [12 September 2019]. （原始內容存檔於5 February 2023）.. International Year of Light – Ibn Al-Haytham and the Legacy of Arabic Optics. www.light2015.org. [9 October 2017]. （原始內容存檔於1 October 2014） （英語）.. International Year of Light: Ibn al Haytham, pioneer of modern optics celebrated at UNESCO. UNESCO. [9 October 2017]. （原始內容存檔於18 September 2015） （英語）.. Specifically, he was the first to explain that vision occurs when light bounces on an object and then enters an eye. Adamson, Peter. Philosophy in the Islamic World: A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps. Oxford University Press. 2016: 77 [3 October 2016]. ISBN 978-0-19-957749-1. （原始內容存檔於5 February 2023）.
12. Adamson, Peter. Philosophy in the Islamic World: A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps. Oxford University Press. 2016: 77 [3 October 2016]. ISBN 978-0-19-957749-1. （原始內容存檔於5 February 2023）.
13. Rashed, Roshdi. Fermat et le principe du moindre temps. Comptes Rendus Mécanique. 2019-04-01, 347 (4): 357–364. Bibcode:2019CRMec.347..357R. ISSN 1631-0721. S2CID 145904123. doi:10.1016/j.crme.2019.03.010 .
14. Boudrioua, Azzedine; Rashed, Roshdi; Lakshminarayanan, Vasudevan. Light-Based Science: Technology and Sustainable Development, The Legacy of Ibn al-Haytham. CRC Press. 2017 [22 February 2023]. ISBN 978-1-351-65112-7. （原始內容存檔於6 March 2023） （英語）.
15. Haq, Syed (2009). "Science in Islam". Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages. ISSN 1703-7603. Retrieved 22 October 2014.
16. G. J. Toomer.

    JSTOR 228328?pg=464

    , Toomer's 1964 review of Matthias Schramm (1963) Ibn Al-Haythams Weg Zur Physik] 網際網路檔案館的存檔，存檔日期26 March 2017. Toomer p. 464: "Schramm sums up [Ibn Al-Haytham's] achievement in the development of scientific method."
17. International Year of Light – Ibn Al-Haytham and the Legacy of Arabic Optics. [4 January 2015]. （原始內容存檔於1 October 2014）.
18. Gorini, Rosanna. Al-Haytham the man of experience. First steps in the science of vision (PDF). Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine. October 2003, 2 (4): 53–55 [25 September 2008]. （原始內容存檔 (PDF)於2022-10-09）.
19. Al-Khalili, Jim. The 'first true scientist'. BBC News. 4 January 2009 [2 June 2018]. （原始內容存檔於26 April 2015）.
20. Roshdi Rashed, Ibn al-Haytham's Geometrical Methods and the Philosophy of Mathematics: A History of Arabic Sciences and Mathematics, Volume 5, Routledge (2017), p. 635

參考文獻

• Aaen-Stockdale, C. R., Ibn al-Haytham and psychophysics (PDF), Perception, 2008, 37 (4): 636–638 [2012-10-18], PMID 18546671, doi:10.1068/p5940, （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2012-03-21）
• Professor Abattouy, Mohammed, The Arabic Science of weights: A Report on an Ongoing Research Project, The Bulletin of the Royal Institute for Inter-Faith Studies, 2002, 4: 109–130
• Abbott, David, Biographical Dictionary of Scientists I, Frederick Muller Ltd, December 1983, ISBN 0-584-10854-0, OCLC 10505374
• Agrawal, Amit; Taguchi, Yuichi; Ramalingam, Srikumar, Beyond Alhazen's Problem: Analytical Projection Model for Non-Central Catadioptric Cameras with Quadric Mirrors, IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 2011, （原始內容存檔於2012-03-07）
• Agrawal, Amit; Taguchi, Yuichi; Ramalingam, Srikumar, Analytical Forward Projection for Axial Non-Central Dioptric and Catadioptric Cameras, European Conference on Computer Vision, 2010, （原始內容存檔於2012-03-07）

• Arjomand, Kamran, The emergence of scientific modernity in Iran: controversies surrounding astrology and modern astronomy in the mid-nineteenth century, Iranian Studies, 1997, 30 (1)
• Bettany, Laurence, Ibn al-Haytham: an answer to multicultural science teaching?, Physics Education, 1995, 30: 247–252, Bibcode:1995PhyEd..30..247B, doi:10.1088/0031-9120/30/4/011
• El-Bizri, Nader, La perception de la profondeur: Alhazen, Berkeley et Merleau-Ponty, Oriens-Occidens: sciences, mathématiques et philosophie de l』antiquité à l』âge classique (Cahiers du Centre d』Histoire des Sciences et des Philosophies Arabes et Médiévales) (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique), 2004, 5: 171–184
• El-Bizri, Nader, A Philosophical Perspective on Alhazen’s Optics, Arabic Sciences and Philosophy (Cambridge University Press), 2005a, 15 (2): 189–218, doi:10.1017/S0957423905000172
• El-Bizri, Nader, Ibn al-Haytham, Wallis, Faith (編), Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia, New York & London: Routledge: 237–240, 2005b, ISBN 0-415-96930-1, OCLC 218847614、58829023、61228669
• El-Bizri, Nader, Ibn al-Haytham or Alhazen, Meri, Josef W. (編), Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopaedia II, New York & London: Routledge: 343–345, 2006, ISBN 0-415-96692-2, OCLC 224371638、59360024
• El-Bizri, Nader, In Defence of the Sovereignty of Philosophy: Al-Baghdadi's Critique of Ibn al-Haytham's Geometrisation of Place, Arabic Sciences and Philosophy (Cambridge University Press), 2007, 17: 57–80, doi:10.1017/S0957423907000367
• El-Bizri, Nader, Ibn al-Haytham et le problème de la couleur, Oriens-Occidens: sciences, mathématiques et philosophie de l』antiquité à l』âge classique (Cahiers du Centre d』Histoire des Sciences et des Philosophies Arabes et Médiévales) (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique), 2004, 7: 201–226
• Bouali, Hamid-Eddine; Zghal, Mourad; Lakhdar, Zohra Ben, Popularisation of Optical Phenomena: Establishing the First Ibn Al-Haytham Workshop on Photography (PDF), The Education and Training in Optics and Photonics Conference, 2005 [2008-07-08], （原始內容存檔 (PDF)於2011-05-24）
• Burns, Robert, Some fear Iraq may be rebuilding its weapons of mass destruction, Topeka Capital-Journal, 1999-08-08 [2008-09-21], （原始內容存檔於2009年3月15日）
• Child, John; Shuter, Paul; Taylor, David, Understanding History, Heinemann, 1992, ISBN 0-435-31211-1, OCLC 27338645
• Corbin, Henry, History of Islamic Philosophy, Translated by Liadain Sherrard, Philip Sherrard, London: Kegan Paul International in association with Islamic Publications for The Institute of Ismaili Studies, 1993; original French 1964, ISBN 0-7103-0416-1, OCLC 22109949、221646817、22181827、225287258 請檢查|date=中的日期值 (幫助)
• Crombie, A. C., Robert Grosseteste and the Origins of Experimental Science, 1100–1700, Clarendon Press, Oxford University, 1971
• Dr. Al Deek, Mahmoud, Ibn Al-Haitham: Master of Optics, Mathematics, Physics and Medicine, Al Shindagah, 2004, (November–December 2004) [2012-10-18], （原始內容存檔於2008-06-17）
• Dessel, Norman F.; Nehrich, Richard B.; Glenn I., Voran, Science and Human Destiny, McGraw-Hill, 1973, ISBN 0-07-016580-7, OCLC 409664
• Duhem, Pierre, To Save the Phenomena: An Essay on the Idea of Physical theory from Plato to Galileo, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1908, 1969, ISBN 0-226-16921-9, OCLC 12429405 請檢查|date=中的日期值 (幫助)
• Eder, Michelle, Views of Euclid's Parallel Postulate in Ancient Greece and in Medieval Islam, Rutgers University, 2000 [2008-01-23], （原始內容存檔於2016-08-19）
• Elliott, Robert Stratman, Electromagnetics, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966
• Falco, Charles M., Ibn al-Haytham and the Origins of Modern Image Analysis (PDF), Sharjah, United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.): presented at a plenary session at the International Conference on Information Sciences, Signal Processing and its Applications, 12–15 February 2007 [2008-01-23]^{[永久失效連結]}
• Faruqi, Yasmeen M., Contributions of Islamic scholars to the scientific enterprise, International Education Journal, 2006, 7 (4): 391–396
• Gondhalekar, Prabhakar M., The Grip of Gravity: The Quest to Understand the Laws of Motion and Gravitation, Cambridge University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-521-80316-0, OCLC 224074913、45418963
• Grant, Edward, A source book in medieval science, Volume One, Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1974
• Grant, Edward, Alhazen, Encarta Online Encyclopedia, Microsoft, 2008 [2008-09-16], （原始內容存檔於2008-05-26）
• Hamarneh, Sami, Review: Hakim Mohammed Said, Ibn al-Haitham, Isis, 1972, 63 (1): 118–119, doi:10.1086/350861
• Hassan, Ahmad Y., Al-Jazari And the History of the Water Clock, 2007 [2008-01-23], （原始內容存檔於2014-02-08）
• Hatfield, Gary, Was the Scientific Revolution Really a Revolution in Science?, Ragep, F. J.; Ragep, Sally P.; Livesey, Steven John (編), Tradition, Transmission, Transformation: Proceedings of Two Conferences on Pre-modern Science held at the University of Oklahoma, Brill Publishers, 1996, ISBN 90-04-09126-2, OCLC 19740432、234073624、234096934
• Heeffer, Albrecht, Kepler’s near discovery of the sine law: A qualitative computational model, Third International workshop: Computer models of scientific reasoning and applications (PDF), Buenos Aires: National Library of the Argentine Republic, September 14–15, 2003 [2008-01-23], （原始內容存檔 (PDF)於2021-03-13）
• Hershenson, Maurice, The Moon Illusion, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1989 [2008-09-22], ISBN 0-8058-0121-9, OCLC 20091171、231045807, （原始內容存檔於2015-01-14）
• Highfield, Roger, Don solves the last puzzle left by ancient Greeks, The Daily Telegraph, 1 April 1997, 676 [2008-09-24], （原始內容存檔於2004-11-23）
• Hockney, David, Secret Knowledge: Rediscovering the Lost Techniques of the Old Masters, 2006, ISBN 0-14-200512-6 (New and Expanded Edition). 328 pages. index. list of illustrations. bibliography. 'textual evidence' section cites Alhazen 240, 242, 277, 279, 284. Entire book records Hockney's investigation of the camera obscura and his rediscovery of its use in portraiture.
• Hodgson, Peter Edward, Theology And Modern Physics, Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing, 20062006-01-15, ISBN 978-0-7546-3622-9, OCLC 56876894, DDC: 201.653, LCC: BL265.P4 H63 2005
• Howard, Ian P., Alhazen's neglected discoveries of visual phenomena, Perception, 1996, 25 (10): 1203–1217, PMID 9027923, doi:10.1068/p251203
• Howard, Ian P.; Wade, Nicholas J., Ptolemy's contributions to the geometry of binocular vision, Perception, 1996, 25 (10): 1189–201, PMID 9027922, doi:10.1068/p251189
• Katz, Victor J., Ideas of Calculus in Islam and India, Mathematics Magazine, 1995, 68 (3): 163–174, doi:10.2307/2691411
• Katz, Victor J., History of Mathematics: An Introduction, Addison-Wesley, 1998, ISBN 0-321-01618-1, OCLC 38199387、60154481
• Kelley, David H.; Milone, E. F.; Aveni, A. F., Exploring Ancient Skies: An Encyclopedic Survey of Archaeoastronomy, Birkhäuser, 2005 [2012-10-18], ISBN 0-387-95310-8, OCLC 213887290, （原始內容存檔於2013-06-17）
• Khaleefa, Omar, Who Is the Founder of Psychophysics and Experimental Psychology?, American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, 1999, 16 (2)
• Langerman, Y. Tzvi, Ibn al Haytham's On the Configuration of the World, 1990
• Lindberg, David C., Alhazen's Theory of Vision and Its Reception in the West, Isis, 1967, 58 (3): 321–341, PMID 4867472, doi:10.1086/350266
• Lindberg, David C., Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1976, ISBN 0-226-48234-0, OCLC 1676198、185636643
• Lindberg, David C., Roger Bacon and the Origins of Perspectiva in the Middle Ages, Clarendon Press, 1996
• Lorch, Richard, Ibn al-Haytham, Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008 [2008-08-06], （原始內容存檔於2015-05-30）
• MacKay, R. J.; Oldford, R. W., Scientific Method, Statistical Method and the Speed of Light, Statistical Science, August 2000, 15 (3): 254–78, doi:10.1214/ss/1009212817
• Marshall, O. S., Alhazen and the Telescope, Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets, 1950, 6: 4
• Mihas, Pavlos, Use of History in Developing ideas of refraction, lenses and rainbow, Eighth International History, Philosophy, Sociology & Science Teaching Conference (PDF), University of Leeds, July 15–18, 2005 [2008-01-23], （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2007-09-27）
• Mohamed, Mohaini, Great Muslim Mathematicians, Penerbit UTM, 2000, ISBN 983-52-0157-9, OCLC 48759017
• Montada, Josep Puig, Ibn Bajja, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, September 28, 2007 [2008-07-11], （原始內容存檔於2020-03-16）
• Morelon, Régis; Rashed, Roshdi, Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 2, Routledge, 1996, ISBN 0-415-12410-7, OCLC 34731151
• Murphy, Dan, No more 'Saddams': Iraqis get new currency, The Christian Science Monitor, 2003-10-17 [2008-09-21], （原始內容存檔於2021-04-17）
• Nasr, Seyyed Hossein, The achievements of Ibn Sina in the field of science and his contributions to its philosophy, Islam & Science, 2003, (December 2003)
• O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F., Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham, November 1999 [2008-09-20], （原始內容存檔於2009-04-19）
• O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F., Light through the ages: Ancient Greece to Maxwell, August 2002 [2008-09-20], （原始內容存檔於2019-10-23）
• Omar, Saleh Beshara, Ibn al-Haytham's Optics: A Study of the Origins of Experimental Science, Minneapolis: Bibliotheca Islamica, 1977, ISBN 0-88297-015-1, OCLC 3328963
• Pines, Shlomo, Studies in Arabic Versions of Greek Texts and in Mediaeval Science, Brill Publishers, 1986, ISBN 965-223-626-8, OCLC 14217211、165468475、46823952、60041227
• Plott, C., Global History of Philosophy: The Period of Scholasticism, Motilal Banarsidass, 2000, ISBN 81-208-0551-8
• Powers, Richard, Best Idea; Eyes Wide Open, The New York Times (PDF), April 18, 1999 [2008-01-23], （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2008年2月29日）
• Qadir, Asghar, Relativity: An Introduction to the Special Theory, World Scientific Publishing Co., Singapore, 1989
• Qadir, C. A., Philosophy and Science in the lslamic World, London: Routledge, 1990
• Rashed, Roshdi, A Polymath in the 10th century, Science, August 2002a, 297 (5582): 773, ISSN 0036-8075, PMID 12161634, doi:10.1126/science.1074591
• Rashed, Roshdi, PORTRAITS OF SCIENCE: A Polymath in the 10th Century, Science (Science magazine), 2002-08-02, 297 (5582): 773 [2008-09-16], ISSN 0036-8075, PMID 12161634, doi:10.1126/science.1074591, （原始內容存檔於2009-06-25）
• Rashed, Roshdi, The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al-Haytham, Arabic Sciences and Philosophy (Cambridge University Press), 2007, 17: 7–55, doi:10.1017/S0957423907000355
• Rosen, Edward, The Dissolution of the Solid Celestial Spheres, Journal of the History of Ideas, 1 January 1985, 46 (1): 13–31, ISSN 0022-5037, doi:10.2307/2709773
• Rottman, J., A first course in Abstract Algebra, Prentice Hall, February 28, 2000, ISBN 0-13-011584-3, OCLC 42960682、59576116
• Rozenfeld, Boris A., A History of Non-Euclidean Geometry: Evolution of the Concept of a Geometric Space, Springer Science+Business Media, 1988, ISBN 0-387-96458-4, OCLC 15550634、230166667、230980046、77693662
• Rozenfeld, Boris Abramovich; Youschkevitch, Adolf P., Geometry, Rashed, Roshdi (編), Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science 2, London & New York: Routledge: 447–494, 1996
• Saad, Bashar; Azaizeh, Hassan; Said, Omar, Tradition and Perspectives of Arab Herbal Medicine: A Review, Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine (Oxford University Press), October 2005, 2 (4): 475–479, PMC 1297506 , PMID 16322804, doi:10.1093/ecam/neh133
• Sabra, A. I., The astronomical origin of Ibn al-Haytham’s concept of experiment, Actes du XIIe congrès international d』histoire des sciences (Albert Blanchard, Paris), 1971, 3: 133–136. Reprinted in Sabra, A. I., Optics, Astronomy and Logic: Studies in Arabic Science and Philosophy, Collected Studies Series 444, Variorum, Aldershot, 1994, ISBN 0-86078-435-5, OCLC 29847104、30739740.
• Sabra, A. I., Ibn al-Haytham and the Visual Ray Hypothesis, Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (編), Ismaili Contributions to Islamic Culture, Boston: Shambhala Publications: 178–216, 1978a, ISBN 0-87773-731-2
• Sabra, A. I., An Eleventh-Century Refutation of Ptolemy's Planetary Theory, Hilfstein, Erna; Czartoryski, Paweł; Grande, Frank D. (編), Science and History: Studies in Honor of Edward Rosen, Studia Copernicana XVI, Ossolineum, Wrocław: 117–131, 1978b
• Sabra, A. I., Theories of Light from Descartes to Newton, Cambridge University Press, 1981
• Sabra, A. I., Configuring the Universe: Aporetic, Problem Solving, and Kinematic Modeling as Themes of Arabic Astronomy, Perspectives on Science, 1998, 6 (3): 288–330
• Sabra, A. I., Ibn al-Haytham: Brief life of an Arab mathematician, Harvard Magazine, October–December 2003 [2008-01-23], （原始內容存檔於2007-09-27）
• Sabra, A. I.; Hogendijk, J. P., The Enterprise of Science in Islam: New Perspectives, MIT Press, 2003, ISBN 0-262-19482-1, OCLC 237875424、50252039
• Saliba, George, A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam, New York University Press, 1994, ISBN 0-8147-8023-7, OCLC 35666761
• Salih, H.; Al-Amri, M.; El Gomati, M., The Miracle of Light, A World of Science (UNESCO), 2005, 3 (3)
• Samuelson, James; Crookes, William, The Journal of Science, and Annals of Astronomy, Biology, Geology
• Sardar, Ziauddin, Science in Islamic philosophy, Islamic Philosophy, Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 1998 [2008-02-03], （原始內容存檔於2018-05-26）
• Sarton, George, Introduction To The History of Science, Volume I: From Homer To Omar Khayyam, Baltimore, Maryland: Carnegie Institution for Science, 1927
• Van Sertima, Ivan, Golden Age Of The Moor, Transaction Publishers, 2004 [2012-10-18], ISBN 1-56000-581-5, OCLC 123168739、25416243、29837541、44748929、50901951、56571741、57559516, （原始內容存檔於2012-04-02）
• Smith, A. Mark, Alhacen's theory of visual perception: a critical edition, with English translation and commentary, of the first three books of Alhacen's De aspectibus, the medieval Latin version of Ibn al-Haytham's Kitab al-Manazir, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 91-4, 91-5, Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society & DIANE Publishing, 2001, ISBN 978-0-87169-914-5, OCLC 163278528、163278565、185537919、47168716
• Smith, A. Mark, The Alhacenian Account Of Spatial Perception And Its Epistemological Implications, Arabic Sciences and Philosophy (Cambridge University Press), 2005, 15, doi:10.1017/S0957423905000184
• Smith, John D., The Remarkable Ibn al-Haytham, The Mathematical Gazette (Mathematical Association), 1 March 1992, 76 (475): 189–198, ISSN 0025-5572, doi:10.2307/3620392
• Thiele, Rüdiger, In Memoriam: Matthias Schramm, Arabic Sciences and Philosophy (Cambridge University Press), 2005, 15: 329–331, doi:10.1017/S0957423905000214
• Toomer, G. J., Review: Ibn al-Haythams Weg zur Physik by Matthias Schramm, Isis, December 1964, 55 (4): 463–465, doi:10.1086/349914
• Topdemir, Hüseyin Gazi, Takîyüddîn'in Optik Kitabi, Ankara: Ministry of Culture Press, 1999
• Topdemir, Hüseyin Gazi, Kamal Al-Din Al-Farisi’s Explanation of the Rainbow (PDF), Humanity & Social Sciences Journal, 2007a, 2 (1): 75–85 [2008-09-16], （原始內容存檔 (PDF)於2008-10-02）
• Topdemir, Huseyin Gazi, Ibn al-Haytham (965-1039) His Life and Works, July 18, 2007
• Topdemir, Hüseyin Gazi, Taqi al-Din ibn Ma‘ruf and the Science of Optics: The Nature of Light and the Mechanism of Vision, FSTC Limited, 30 June 2008 [2008-07-04], （原始內容存檔於2008-07-14）
• Verma, R. L., Al-Hazen: father of modern optics, Al-Arabi, August 1969, 8: 12–3, PMID 11634474
• Vernet, J., Ibn al- Hayt̲h̲am, Abū ʿalī al-Ḥasan b. al-Ḥasan (or Ḥusayn) b. al-Hayt̲h̲am al-Baṣrī al-Miṣrī, Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W. P. (編), Encyclopaedia of Islam, Brill Online: Brill Publishers, 4 April 2008 [2008-09-16]^{[失效連結]}
• Wade, Nicholas J., A Natural History of Vision, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998
• Wade, Nicholas J.; Finger, Stanley, The eye as an optical instrument: from camera obscura to Helmholtz's perspective, Perception, 2001, 30 (10): 1157–1177, PMID 11721819, doi:10.1068/p3210
• Weisstein, Eric, Alhazen's Billiard Problem, Mathworld, [2008-09-24], （原始內容存檔於2021-04-17）
• Whitaker, Brian, Centuries in the House of Wisdom, The Guardian, 2004-09-23 [2008-09-16], （原始內容存檔於2012-06-14）

擴展閱讀

主要文獻

• Sabra, A. I., ed., The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham, Books I-II-III: On Direct Vision. The Arabic text, edited and with Introduction, Arabic-Latin Glossaries and Concordance Tables, Kuwait: National Council for Culture, Arts and Letters, 1983
• Sabra, A. I., ed., The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham. Edition of the Arabic Text of Books IV-V: On Reflection and Images Seen by Reflection. 2 vols, Kuwait: The National Council for Culture, Arts and Letters, 2002
• Sabra, A. I., trans., The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham. Books I-II-III: On Direct Vision. English Translation and Commentary. 2 vols, Studies of the Warburg Institute, vol. 40, London: The Warburg Institute, University of London, 1989, ISBN 0-85481-072-2, OCLC 165564751、65564771、180528350、180528355、180528359、21530166、230045836、24910015、59836570
• Smith, A. Mark, ed. and trans., 寫於Philadelphia, Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's De aspectibus, the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's Kitāb al-Manāzir, 2 vols., Transactions of the American Philosophical Society (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society), 2001, 91 (4-5), ISBN 0-87169-914-1, OCLC 47168716
• Smith, A. Mark, ed. and trans., Alhacen on the Principles of Reflection: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of Books 4 and 5 of Alhacen's De Aspectibus, the Medieval Latin version of Ibn-al-Haytham's Kitāb al-Manāzir, 2 vols, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Soc.), 2006, 96 (2–3), ISBN 0-87169-962-1, OCLC 123464885、185359947、185359957、219328717、219328739、70078653

其他文獻

• Graham, Mark. How Islam Created the Modern World. Amana Publications, 2006.
• Omar, Saleh Beshara, Ibn al-Haytham and Greek optics: a comparative study in scientific methodology, PhD Dissertation, University of Chicago, Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations, June 1975
• Saliba, George, Islamic Science and the Making of the European Reneissance, MIT Press, 2007, ISBN 0-262-19557-7
• Belting, Hans, Afterthoughts on Alhazen’s Visual Theory and Its Presence in the Pictorial Theory of Western Perspective, in: Variantology 4. On Deep Time Relations of Arts, Sciences and Technologies In the Arabic-Islamic World and Beyond, ed. by Siegfried Zielinski and Eckhard Fürlus in cooperation with Daniel Irrgang and Franziska Latell (Cologne: Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther König, 2010), pp. 19–42. [1]
• Siegfried Zielinski & Franziska Latell, How One Sees, in: Variantology 4. On Deep Time Relations of Arts, Sciences and Technologies In the Arabic-Islamic World and Beyond, ed. by Siegfried Zielinski and Eckhard Fürlus in cooperation with Daniel Irrgang and Franziska Latell (Cologne: Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther König, 2010), pp. 19–42. [2]