敦克爾克撤退
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敦克爾克撤退(英語:Dunkirk evacuation),代號「發電機行動」(英語:Operation Dynamo),是指在二戰中的1940年5月26日至6月4日期間,從法國北部敦克爾克的海灘和港口撤離超過33.8萬名盟軍士兵的行動。該行動是在大量比利時、英國和法國部隊在為期六周的法國戰役中被德軍包圍後啟動的。
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敦克爾克撤退 | |||||||
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第二次世界大戰敦克爾克戰役的一部分 | |||||||
英國士兵在海灘旁排隊等待撤離 | |||||||
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參戰方 | |||||||
荷蘭[5] 波蘭[2] | 德國 | ||||||
指揮官與領導者 | |||||||
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1939年9月,德國入侵波蘭後,法國和英國對德國宣戰並實施經濟封鎖(英語:Blockade of Germany (1939–1945))。英國遠征軍被派往法國協助防禦。經過1939年10月至1940年4月的「靜坐戰爭」後,德國於1940年5月10日入侵比利時、荷蘭和法國。三個裝甲軍團通過亞爾丁森林進攻,並向西北方向推進至英吉利海峽。到5月21日,德軍已將英國遠征軍、比利時殘餘部隊以及三個法國軍團困在法國北部沿海地區。英國遠征軍司令戈特勳爵立即認為撤退到敦克爾克是最好的行動,並開始計劃撤退到最近的良港敦克爾克。
5月23日晚,A集團軍的指揮官倫德施泰特上將發布了暫停進攻的命令。阿道夫·希特勒次日批准了該命令,並要求國防軍最高統帥部向前線發出確認。這使得德軍在5月26日撤銷命令之前,將對被困的英國遠征軍、法國和比利時軍隊的攻擊留給了空軍。這給了盟軍時間構築防禦工事並撤回大量部隊參加敦克爾克戰役。5月28日至31日,在里耳圍城戰中,法國第一軍的剩餘4萬名士兵對抗德軍七個師(包括三個裝甲師),進行了拖延戰。
在行動的首日,僅有7,669名盟軍士兵成功撤離,但到第八天結束時,通過一支緊急組建的800多艘船隻的艦隊,338,226人被成功救出。許多士兵通過港口的防波堤登上了39艘英國皇家海軍驅逐艦、4艘加拿大皇家海軍驅逐艦、至少3艘法國海軍驅逐艦以及多種民用商船。其他士兵則不得不從海灘涉水,肩浸水中等待數小時。一些士兵被「敦克爾克小船(英語:Little Ships of Dunkirk)」——從英國召集的數百艘商船、漁船、遊船、遊艇和救生艇——運送到更大的船隻上。英國遠征軍在法國戰役中損失慘重,失去了68,000名士兵,並不得不遺棄幾乎所有的坦克、車輛和裝備。1940年6月4日,英國首相溫斯頓·邱吉爾在下議院的演講中將此次事件稱為「巨大的軍事災難」,並指出「英國陸軍的整個根基和核心」被困敦克爾克,似乎將要消亡或被俘。[7]但他也將此救援譽為「解救的奇蹟」,[8] 同時警醒全國「我們必須非常小心,不要將這次解救視作勝利的象徵。戰爭並非通過撤退贏得。」[9]
背景
1939年9月,德國入侵波蘭後,英國派遣了英國遠征軍(BEF)協助防衛法國,部隊在瑟堡、南特和聖納澤爾登陸。到1940年5月,這支部隊集結了十個師組成三個軍團,由戈特勳爵指揮。[10][11] 與英國遠征軍協同作戰的還有比利時軍隊以及法國第一、第七(英語:7th Army (France))和第九軍(英語:9th Army (France))。[12]
在1930年代,法國修建了馬奇諾防線,這是一系列沿法德邊境的防禦工事。該防線旨在阻止德軍穿越法德邊界進攻,並將其攻擊引導至比利時,然後由法國最精銳的部隊迎戰,從而避免戰爭在法國領土上進行,避免重演第一次世界大戰的悲劇。[13][14] 馬奇諾防線北部的亞爾丁地區密林覆蓋,[15] 法國將軍菲利普·貝當認為這片地區「只要採取特別措施,就是不可穿越的」。他相信任何從森林中出現的敵軍都將容易在鉗形攻勢中被殲滅。法軍總司令莫里斯·甘末林也認為這一地區威脅有限,認為該地「不適合大規模作戰」。[16]因此,該地區防守較為薄弱。[13]
德國入侵法國的初步計劃是繞過馬奇諾防線,通過荷蘭和比利時進行包圍攻擊。[17]時任德軍A集團軍參謀長的埃里希·馮·曼施泰因提出了一種不同的計劃,並由他的上司倫德施泰特提交給了德國國防軍陸軍總司令部。[18][19] 曼施泰因建議裝甲師通過亞爾丁進攻,在默茲河建立橋頭堡,然後迅速推進到英吉利海峽。這樣,德軍就能切斷在比利時的盟軍。這部分計劃後來被稱為鐮刀收割計劃。[19]阿道夫·希特勒在2月17日會見曼施泰因後,批准了修改後的計劃,今天稱為「曼施泰因計劃」。[20]
1940年5月10日,德軍入侵比利時和荷蘭。[21] 由費多爾·馮·博克上將指揮的B集團軍攻擊比利時,而由倫德施泰特指揮的A集團軍的三個裝甲軍團則向南轉向海峽。[22] 英國遠征軍從比利時邊境推進到比利時境內的迪爾河沿岸,從5月10日起與B集團軍交戰。[23][24]由於比利時和法國兩側的防線未能守住,他們在5月14日被命令撤退至斯海爾德河。[25] 5月17日,首相溫斯頓·邱吉爾在訪問巴黎時驚訝地得知甘末林已將所有部隊投入戰鬥,沒有戰略預備隊。[26] 5月19日,戈特勳爵與法國將軍加斯頓·比洛特(英語:Gaston Billotte)會面,比洛特透露法軍在德軍與海之間沒有任何部隊。戈特勳爵立即決定跨海撤退為最佳行動方案,並開始計劃撤退至最近的良港敦克爾克。[27] 敦克爾克四周沼澤環繞,擁有古老的防禦工事和歐洲最長的沙灘,是大規模集結的理想地點。[28] 5月20日,在邱吉爾的建議下,海軍部開始準備所有可用的小型船隻前往法國。經過持續交戰,以及5月21日阿拉斯的突圍戰役以失敗告終後,[29] 英國遠征軍與比利時殘餘部隊和三個法國集團軍一起被困在法國和比利時北部沿海地區。[30][31]
序幕
在沒有通知法國的情況下,英國於5月20日開始計劃發電機行動(Operation Dynamo),即撤離英國遠征軍(BEF)。[28][32]這一計劃由伯特倫·拉姆齊(英語:Bertram Ramsay)海軍中將負責,他在多佛城堡下的海軍指揮部進行了籌劃,並在行動進行期間向邱吉爾匯報。[33]撤離船隻開始在多佛集結。[34]5月20日,英國遠征軍派遣傑拉爾德·懷特菲爾德准將前往敦克爾克,開始撤離不必要的人員。面對著他後來描述為「大量軍官和士兵向敦克爾克行進」的情況,加上食物和水的短缺,懷特菲爾德只得在未徹底檢查證件的情況下匆忙放行許多人撤離,甚至那些被命令留下協助撤離的軍官也偷偷上了船。[35]
5月22日,邱吉爾命令英國遠征軍與喬治·布朗查德(英語:Georges Maurice Jean Blanchard)將軍指揮的法國第一軍協同作戰,向南進攻以重新與其餘法軍會合。[36]該計劃被稱為「魏剛計劃」,以5月18日接替甘末林成為總司令的馬克西姆·魏剛將軍命名。[37]然而,5月25日,戈特勳爵不得不放棄實現這一目標的希望,並自行決定與布朗查德的部隊一起撤退至里斯運河後方,這是一條到達格拉沃利訥海岸的運河的一部分。[38]運河的水閘已經打開,水淹沒了運河,由此形成了一道防禦德軍推進的屏障(運河防線)。[39]
敦克爾克戰役
到5月24日,德軍已經占領了布洛涅港並包圍了加萊。[30]魯道夫·費爾(英語:Rudolf Veiel)少將指揮的第2裝甲師工兵在運河防線建立了五座橋梁,而通往敦克爾克的道路上只有一個英國營在阻擋。[41]5月23日,應第四集團軍司令君特·馮·克魯格元帥的建議,因為擔心其側翼的脆弱性和前線部隊的補給問題,倫德施泰特命令裝甲部隊停止進攻。[42][43][44][45]他還擔心敦克爾克周圍的沼澤地不適合坦克作戰,希望保留坦克用於後續行動(一些部隊的坦克損失高達30-50%)。[46][47]希特勒也對此表示擔憂,並在5月24日訪問A集團軍總部時,支持了這一命令。[46][45]
空軍元帥赫爾曼·戈林敦促希特勒讓空軍(在B集團軍的協助下)完成對英軍的殲滅,這讓弗朗茨·哈爾德將軍感到驚愕,他在日記中寫道:「空軍戰鬥依賴於天氣情況,而且經過兩周的戰鬥,飛行員已經疲憊不堪。」[48]倫德施泰特發出了一條命令,然而這條命令是未加密的,並被皇家空軍情報網絡(英語:Y service)在12:42截獲:「根據元首的命令……阿拉斯西北的攻擊需限制在朗斯–貝蒂訥–艾爾–聖奧梅爾–格拉沃林一線。運河不得跨越。」[49][50]當天晚些時候,希特勒發布了第13號指令,要求空軍擊敗被困的盟軍並阻止其逃脫。[51]5月26日15:30,希特勒命令裝甲部隊繼續進攻,但大多數部隊花了16個小時才開始攻擊。[52]有些報導引用希特勒的話稱,他故意讓英國人逃脫。[53]這一延誤給了盟軍時間準備防禦工事,這對撤退至關重要,並防止了德軍阻攔盟軍從里耳撤退。[54]
「停止前進」的命令成為歷史學家們廣泛討論的話題。[55][56]古德里安認為未能及時攻打敦克爾克是德軍在西線的重大錯誤之一。[57]倫德施泰特稱其為「戰爭的重大轉折點之一」,[58]曼施泰因則將其描述為「希特勒最嚴重的錯誤之一」。[59]B·H·李德哈特在戰後採訪了許多將軍,並拼湊出希特勒在這一問題上的戰略思考。希特勒相信,一旦英國軍隊得以離開歐洲大陸,他們將永遠不會返回。[60][頁碼請求]
撤離過程
5月26日-27日
撤退是在混亂的情況下進行的。道路被到處遺棄的車輛堵塞,難民潮流向相反的方向涌去。[61][62]由於戰時審查制度和保持英國士氣的需要,正在發生在敦克爾克的災難的全部規模沒有在一開始就被公布。5月26日,喬治六世國王在威斯敏斯特教堂主持了一場特別的祈禱儀式,這一天被宣布為全國祈禱日。[63][64]坎特伯雷大主教科斯莫·戈登·朗(英語:Cosmo Gordon Lang)帶領禱告,「為我們在法國身處險境的士兵們祈禱」。同一天,英國各地的猶太教堂和教堂也舉行了類似的祈禱,向公眾確認了士兵們正處於絕境。[65]5月26日19:00前不久,邱吉爾下令發電機行動開始,那時已經有28,000人撤離。[28]最初的計劃是在兩天內從英國遠征軍中撤出45,000人,而德軍預計會在此時阻止進一步的撤離。在這段時間內,只有25,000人逃脫,其中包括第一天的7,669人。[66][67]
5月27日,在撤離的第一天,一艘巡洋艦、八艘驅逐艦和其他26艘船隻參與行動。[68]海軍部官員在附近的船廠尋找小船以及可以從碼頭裝載的大船,用於將人員從海灘運送到港口的較大船隻上並自港口撤離。為了請求更多的幫助,政府發布了一條緊急消息。到5月31日,共有近400艘小船自願並熱情地參與了這一行動。[69]
同一天,德軍空軍對敦克爾克進行了猛烈轟炸,炸毀了城鎮和港口設施。由於供水系統被摧毀,火災無法撲滅。[70]據估計有1000名平民被炸死,占該鎮剩餘人口的三分之一。皇家空軍中隊被命令在撤離期間為皇家海軍提供制空權。他們的任務轉向掩護敦克爾克和英吉利海峽,保護撤離中的艦隊。[71]德軍空軍遭遇了皇家空軍的16個中隊,5月27日皇家空軍宣稱擊落了38架飛機,但也損失了14架。[70][72]許多皇家空軍戰鬥機受損後被報廢。德軍方面,第二轟炸機聯隊(英語:Kampfgeschwader 2)和第三轟炸機聯隊(英語:Kampfgeschwader 3)損失最為慘重,共損失了23架Do 17轟炸機。第一轟炸機聯隊和第四轟炸機聯隊轟炸了海灘和港口,54號轟炸機聯隊(英語:Kampfgeschwader 54)擊沉了8000噸的蒸汽船亞丁號。Ju 87俯衝轟炸機擊沉了運輸船蔚藍海岸號。德軍空軍出動了300架轟炸機,由550架戰鬥機護航,進行了12次襲擊,投下了15,000枚高爆炸彈和30,000枚燃燒彈,摧毀了油罐並破壞了港口。[73]皇家空軍第11集團(英語:No. 11 Group RAF)當天出動22次,共287架次飛機,以最多20架次的編隊進行巡邏。[74]
整個發電機行動中,皇家空軍總共出動了超過3500次,[72]並在整個星期內對德軍轟炸機造成了重大損失。在等待運輸時被轟炸和掃射的士兵大多不知道皇家空軍付出了多大的努力保護他們,因為大多數空戰發生在遠離海灘的地方。結果,許多英國士兵痛苦地指責空軍無所作為,據報導,這導致一些陸軍士兵在回到英國後對空軍人員進行責罵和侮辱。[40]
5月25日和26日,德軍空軍集中攻擊堅守在加萊、里耳和亞眠的困守盟軍,沒有攻擊敦克爾克。[75]英國遠征軍守衛的加萊在26日投降。里耳圍城戰中,法國第一軍的殘餘部隊對抗了七個德軍師,其中包括幾個裝甲師,直到5月31日,這剩下的35,000名士兵在彈盡糧絕後被迫投降。[76][77]德軍為里耳的守軍授予了戰爭榮譽(英語:Honours of war),以表彰他們的勇敢。[78]
5月28日-6月4日
5月28日,比利時軍隊投降,[79]敦克爾克以東出現了一個大缺口。幾支英軍部隊迅速趕到,填補了這個防線上的空隙。[80] 同一天,德軍空軍轉移了攻擊重點,對比利時的奧斯滕德和紐波特進行了空襲,而敦克爾克的空襲次數減少。由於天氣不利於俯衝或低空轟炸,英軍皇家空軍(RAF)在敦克爾克上空執行了11次巡邏,共出動了321架次,聲稱擊落了23架敵機,損失了13架飛機。[74] 5月28日,共有17,804名士兵抵達英國港口。[67]
5月29日,英軍成功撤離了47,310名士兵,[67]但德軍Ju 87俯衝轟炸機對船隻造成了重大損失。英國驅逐艦HMS Grenade號(英語:HMS Grenade号)被擊沉,法國驅逐艦Mistral號(英語:French destroyer Mistral)受重創,數艘裝載了500名士兵的姊妹艦也在近距離爆炸中受損。英國驅逐艦Jaguar號(英語:HMS Jaguar (F34))和Verity號(英語:HMS Verity (D63))雖然嚴重受損,但成功逃離了港口。兩艘拖網漁船在襲擊中被摧毀。稍後,客輪SS Fenella(英語:SS Fenella (1936))在碼頭沉沒,當時船上有600人,但大部分人成功逃生。明輪蒸汽船HMS Crested Eagle(英語:HMS Crested Eagle)直接被擊中,隨後著火併沉沒,造成了重大傷亡。德軍還摧毀了兩艘鐵道船,SS Lorina(英語:SS Lorina (1918))和SS Normannia(英語:SS Normannia (1911))。[81]在五次主要的德軍攻擊中,僅有兩次受到了皇家空軍戰鬥機的反擊;英軍在九次巡邏中損失了16架戰鬥機。而德軍方面,共11架Ju 87俯衝轟炸機被損壞或摧毀。[82]
5月30日,邱吉爾收到消息稱,所有英軍師團現在都在防禦線後方,超過半數的法國第一集團軍也在防線內。[76]此時的防線沿著離海岸約7英里(11公里)的一系列運河延伸,這片沼澤地區不適合坦克行動。[83]由於港口的碼頭設施已遭德軍空襲破壞,海軍上尉(後來的海軍上將)威廉·坦納特(英語:William Tennant (Royal Navy officer))命令士兵從海灘撤離。當發現這種方式太慢後,他改為將撤離人員引導至東防波堤和西防波堤以及海灘。雖然防波堤並非設計用於停靠船隻,但多數被救援的士兵還是通過這種方式撤離。[84]在接下來的一個星期里,近20萬士兵通過東防波堤登船。[85][86]詹姆斯·坎貝爾·克勞斯頓(英語:James Campbell Clouston)擔任東防波堤的碼頭主管,負責組織和調控士兵沿防波堤進入等候的船隻。[87]再次出現的低雲使德軍空軍的活動減少。皇家空軍進行了九次巡邏,沒有遇到德軍編隊。[88]第二天,德軍空軍以損失17架飛機為代價擊沉了一艘運輸船,損壞了12艘其他船隻;英軍聲稱擊落38架敵機,但這一說法有爭議。英軍皇家空軍和艦隊航空兵共損失了28架飛機。[88]
次日,另有53,823名士兵登船撤離,[9]其中包括首批法國士兵。[89]戈特勳爵與68,014人一道於5月31日撤離,[90]後衛指揮權交給少將哈羅德·亞歷山大。[91] 6月1日,進一步有64,429名盟軍士兵撤離,[67]隨後由於空襲加劇,白天撤離被迫停止。[92]英軍的4000名殿後部隊於6月2日至3日夜間撤離。[93] 又有75,000名法國士兵在6月2日至4日夜間撤離,最終行動結束。[67][94]剩下的40,000名法國殿後部隊於6月4日投降。[93]
在總計338,226名被撤離的士兵中,有幾百名是來自印度皇家陸軍服務隊(英語:Indian Army Service Corps)的印度騾夫(英語:Arriero)和賽普勒斯騾夫。他們屬於K-6運輸部隊的六個部隊中的四個,其中三支部隊成功撤離,一支被俘。[95][96][97]在敦克爾克,還出現了一小部分法國塞內加爾士兵和摩洛哥士兵的身影。[4][98]
海軍
撤離路線
敦克爾克大撤退中共有三條航線被用來撤離。最短的航線是 Z 航線,全長39海里(72公里),但它需要沿著法國海岸行進,因此使用這條航線的船隻在白天容易受到岸上炮台的轟擊。[99][100]X 航線雖然是最安全的,但它經過了英吉利海峽中雷區最密集的部分。撤退船隻需要沿這條航線從敦克爾克向北航行55海里(102公里),通過呂伊廷根航道(Ruytingen Pass),[101]到達北古德溫燈船(North Goodwin Lightship),再向南繞過古德溫沙洲(英語:Goodwin Sands)到達多佛。[99][100]雖然這條航線在白天最為安全,但由於附近遍布的雷區和沙洲,使得其在夜間無法使用。[102]最長的航線是 Y 航線,全長87海里(161公里),使用這條航線會花費四小時撤離,是 Z 航線所需時間的兩倍。Y 航線沿法國海岸行進至布賴迪訥,然後轉向東北,直到到達奎恩特浮標(Kwinte Buoy)。在此處大約135度轉彎後,船隻向西行駛到北古德溫燈船,再向南繞過古德溫沙洲到達多佛。使用 Y 航線的船隻最有可能遭到德國水面艦艇、潛艇和空軍的攻擊。
你知道這就是你回家的機會,你一直在祈禱:「上帝,讓我們走吧,讓我們脫身,把我們從這混亂中帶回英格蘭。」看到那艘來接我和我哥哥的船,真是最奇妙的景象。我們看到空中正在狗斗的戰鬥機,祈禱一切平安,可怕的景象時有發生。然後有人說,「那是多佛。」 我們看到了白色懸崖,那時的氣氛是難以形容的。從地獄到天堂,這種感覺就像奇蹟發生了一樣。
——哈里·加勒特,英國陸軍,肯特在線的採訪[103]
船隻
The Royal Navy provided the anti-aircraft cruiser 「Calcutta」號D82 (6), 39 destroyers, and many other craft. The Merchant Navy supplied passenger ferries, hospital ships, and other vessels. Britain's Belgian, Dutch, Canadian,[3] Polish,[104] and French allies provided vessels as well. Admiral Ramsay arranged for around a thousand copies to be made of the required charts, had buoys laid around the Goodwin Sands and down to Dunkirk, and organised the flow of shipping.[102] Larger ships such as destroyers were able to carry about 900 men per trip. The soldiers mostly travelled on the upper decks for fear of being trapped below if the ship sank.[105] After the loss on 29 May of 19 British and French navy ships plus three of the larger requisitioned vessels, the Admiralty withdrew their eight best destroyers for the future defence of the country.[106]
Type of vessel | Total engaged | Sunk | Damaged |
---|---|---|---|
Cruisers | 1 | 0 | 1 |
Destroyers | 39 | 6 | 19 |
Sloops, corvettes and gunboats | 9 | 1 | 1 |
Minesweepers | 36 | 5 | 7 |
Trawlers and drifters | 113 | 17 | 2 |
Special service vessels | 3 | 1 | 0 |
Ocean boarding vessels | 3 | 1 | 1 |
Torpedo boats and anti-submarine boats | 13 | 0 | 0 |
Former Dutch schuyts with naval crews | 40 | 4 | Unknown |
Yachts with naval crews | 26 | 3 | Unknown |
Personnel ships | 45 | 8 | 8 |
Hospital carriers | 8 | 1 | 5 |
Naval motor boats | 12 | 6 | Unknown |
Tugboats | 34 | 3 | Unknown |
Other small craft[note 1] | 311 | 170 | Unknown |
Total British ships | 693 | 226 | |
Type of vessel | Total engaged | Sunk | Damaged |
---|---|---|---|
Warships (all types) | 49 | 8 | Unknown |
Other vessels | 119 | 9 | Unknown |
Total Allied ships | 168 | 17 | Unknown |
Grand total | 861 | 243 | Unknown |
小型船隻
A wide variety of small vessels from all over the south of England were pressed into service to aid in the Dunkirk evacuation. They included speedboats, Thames vessels, car ferries, pleasure craft, and many other types of small craft.[108] The most useful proved to be the motor lifeboats, which had a reasonably good capacity and speed.[108] Some boats were requisitioned without the owner's knowledge or consent. Agents of the Ministry of Shipping, accompanied by a naval officer, scoured the Thames for likely vessels, had them checked for seaworthiness, and took them downriver to Sheerness, where naval crews were to be placed aboard. Due to shortages of personnel, many small craft crossed the Channel with civilian crews.[109]
The first of the "little ships" arrived at Dunkirk on 28 May.[105] The wide sand beaches meant that large vessels could not get anywhere near the shore, and even small craft had to stop about 100碼(91公尺) from the waterline and wait for the soldiers to wade out.[110] In many cases, personnel would abandon their boat upon reaching a larger ship, and subsequent evacuees had to wait for boats to drift ashore with the tide before they could make use of them.[111] In most areas on the beaches, soldiers queued up with their units and patiently awaited their turn to leave. But at times, panicky soldiers had to be warned off at gunpoint when they attempted to rush to the boats out of turn.[112] In addition to ferrying out on boats, soldiers at De Panne and Bray-Dunes constructed improvised jetties by driving rows of abandoned vehicles onto the beach at low tide, anchoring them with sandbags, and connecting them with wooden walkways.[113]
後續
戰後分析
Date | Beaches | Harbour | Total |
---|---|---|---|
27 May | — | 7,669 | 7,669 |
28 May | 5,930 | 11,874 | 17,804 |
29 May | 13,752 | 33,558 | 47,310 |
30 May | 29,512 | 24,311 | 53,823 |
31 May | 22,942 | 45,072 | 68,014 |
1 June | 17,348 | 47,081 | 64,429 |
2 June | 6,695 | 19,561 | 26,256 |
3 June | 1,870 | 24,876 | 26,746 |
4 June | 622 | 25,553 | 26,175 |
Totals | 98,671 | 239,555 | 338,226 |
Before the operation was completed, the prognosis had been gloomy, with Churchill warning the House of Commons on 28 May to expect "hard and heavy tidings".[114] Subsequently, Churchill referred to the outcome as a miracle, and the British press presented the evacuation as a "disaster turned to triumph" so successfully that Churchill had to remind the country in a speech to the House of Commons on 4 June that "we must be very careful not to assign to this deliverance the attributes of a victory. Wars are not won by evacuations."[9] Andrew Roberts comments that the confusion over the Dunkirk evacuation is illustrated by two of the best books on it being called Strange Defeat and Strange Victory.[115]
The 51st (Highland) Infantry Division was cut off south of the Somme, by the German "race to the sea", in addition to the 1st Armoured Division and a host of logistical and labour troops. Some of the latter had been formed into the improvised Beauman Division. At the end of May, further elements of two divisions began deploying to France with the hope of establishing a Second BEF. The majority of the 51st (Highland) Infantry Division was forced to surrender on 12 June. However, almost 192,000 Allied personnel, including 144,000 British, were evacuated through various French ports from 15 to 25 June under the codename Operation Aerial.[116] Remaining British forces under the French Tenth Army as Norman Force retreated towards Cherbourg.[117] The Germans marched into Paris on 14 June and France surrendered eight days later.[118]
The more than 100,000 French troops evacuated from Dunkirk were quickly and efficiently shuttled to camps in various parts of south-western England, where they were temporarily lodged before being repatriated.[119] British ships ferried French troops to Brest, Cherbourg, and other ports in Normandy and Brittany, although only about half of the repatriated troops were redeployed against the Germans before the surrender of France. For many French soldiers, the Dunkirk evacuation represented only a few weeks' delay before being killed or captured by the German army after their return to France.[120] Of the French soldiers evacuated from France in June 1940, about 3,000 joined Charles de Gaulle's Free French army in Britain.[121]
In France, the unilateral British decision to evacuate through Dunkirk rather than counter-attack to the south, and the perceived preference of the Royal Navy for evacuating British forces at the expense of the French, led to some bitter resentment. According to Churchill, French Admiral François Darlan originally ordered that the British forces should receive preference, but on 31 May, he intervened at a meeting in Paris to order that the evacuation should proceed on equal terms and that the British would form the rearguard.[122] In fact, the 35,000 men who finally surrendered after covering the final evacuations were mostly French soldiers of the 2nd Light Mechanized and the 68th Infantry Divisions.[123][124] Their resistance allowed the evacuation effort to be extended to 4 June, on which date another 26,175 Frenchmen were transported to England.[67]
The evacuation was presented to the German public as an overwhelming and decisive German victory. On 5 June 1940, Hitler stated, "Dunkirk has fallen! 40,000 French and English troops are all that remains of the formerly great armies. Immeasurable quantities of materiel have been captured. The greatest battle in the history of the world has come to an end."[a][125] Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (the German armed forces high command) announced the event as "the greatest annihilation battle of all time".[126]
傷亡情況
During the entire campaign, from 10 May until the armistice with France on 22 June, the BEF suffered 68,000 casualties.[127] This included 3,500 killed and 13,053 wounded.[128][129] Most heavy equipment had to be abandoned during the various evacuations, resulting in the loss of 2,472 pieces of artillery, 20,000 motorcycles, nearly 65,000 other vehicles, 416,000 long ton(423,000 t) of stores, more than 75,000 long ton(76,000 t) of ammunition, and 162,000 long ton(165,000 t) of fuel.[130] Almost all of the 445 British tanks despatched to France were abandoned.[131]
Six British and three French destroyers were sunk, along with nine other major vessels. In addition, 19 destroyers were damaged.[132] Over 200 British and Allied sea craft were sunk, with a similar number damaged.[133] The Royal Navy's most significant losses in the operation were six destroyers:
- 「Grafton」號H89 (2), sunk by 和諧陣線 on 29 May[134]
- 「Grenade」號H86 (2), sunk by air attack at Dunkirk on 29 May[135]
- 「Wakeful」號H88 (2), sunk by a torpedo from the E-boat S-30 on 29 May[136]
- 「Basilisk」號H11 (2), 「Havant」號H32 (2), and 「Keith」號D06 (2), sunk by air attack off the beaches on 1 June[137]
The French Navy lost three destroyers:
- 「French destroyer」號, mined off Nieuport on 30 May
- 「French destroyer」號, sunk by the E-boats S-23 and S-26 on 31 May
- Le Foudroyant, sunk by air attack off the beaches on 1 June
The RAF lost 145 aircraft, of which at least 42 were Spitfires, while the Luftwaffe lost 156 aircraft in operations during the nine days of Operation Dynamo,[138] including 35 destroyed by Royal Navy ships (plus 21 damaged) during the six days from 27 May to 1 June.[139]
For every seven soldiers who escaped through Dunkirk, one man became a prisoner of war. The majority of these prisoners were sent on forced marches into Germany. Prisoners reported brutal treatment by their guards, including beatings, starvation, and murder. Another complaint was that German guards kicked over buckets of water that had been left at the roadside by French civilians, for the marching prisoners to drink.[140]
Many of the prisoners were marched to the city of Trier, with the march taking as long as 20 days. Others were marched to the river Scheldt and were sent by barge to the Ruhr. The prisoners were then sent by rail to prisoner of war camps in Germany.[141] The majority (those below the rank of corporal) then worked in German industry and agriculture for the remainder of the war.[142]
Those of the BEF who died in the fighting of 1940, or as a prisoner of war following capture during this campaign, and have no known grave are commemorated on the Dunkirk Memorial.[143]
敦克爾克傑克旗
The St George's Cross defaced with the arms of Dunkirk is the warranted house flag of the Association of Dunkirk Little Ships. It is known as the Dunkirk Jack. The flag may be flown from the jack staff only by civilian vessels that took part in the Dunkirk rescue operation.[144]
藝術作品
電影
- 敦克爾克 (1958)
- 敦克爾克的周末(英語:Weekend at Dunkirk) (1964)
- 贖罪 (2007)
- 敦克爾克大行動 (2017)
- 至暗時刻 (2017)
電視劇
- 敦克爾克 (2004)
書籍
- 《雪鵝》, 保羅·加利科著
相關條目
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延伸閱讀
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- Franks, Norman. The Air Battle of Dunkirk. London: William Kimber. 1983. ISBN 0-7183-0349-0.
- Sebag-Montefiore, Hugh. Dunkirk: Fight to the Last Man. New York: Viking. 2006. ISBN 0-670-91082-1.
- Weinberg, Gerhard L. A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II. New York: Cambridge University Press. 1994. ISBN 0-521-44317-2.
- Wilmot, Chester. The Struggle for Europe. New York: Carroll & Graf. 1986. ISBN 0-88184-257-5.
外部連結
- Spitfires Join the Fighting – aerial battle over Dunkirk 網際網路檔案館的存檔,存檔日期28 September 2020.
- Official website of Dunkirk memorial and museum
- BBC Archive – Dunkirk Evacuation
- Dunkirk, Operation Dynamo – Battle of Britain 1940
- Nazis invade France Video analysis on WW2History.com
- BBC Archives – J. B. Priestley's 'Postscript' – radio broadcast from 5 June 1940
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