自我組織

自我組織（英語：self-organization），在社會科學中也稱為自發秩序（spontaneous order），是指一種過程，這種過程中，最初的無序系統中各部分之間局部相互作用，形成了某種形式的整體秩序。當能量供給充足時，該過程無需任何外部主體控制即可自發進行。它通常由看似隨機的波動觸發，並經由正反饋放大。由此產生的組織是完全分散的，分布在系統的所有組成成分中。因此，這種組織往往是穩健的，能夠經受重大干擾並自我修復。混沌理論根據大量混亂的不可預測性中的可預測性孤島來討論自我組織。

200 °C水熱處理過程中微米級Nb₃O₇(OH)立方體的自我組織。最初的無定形立方體逐漸轉變為結晶納米線的有序3D網格，如下面的模型所示。^[1]

自我組織發生在許多物理、化學、生物、機器人和認知系統中。自我組織的例子有結晶、流體的熱對流、化學振盪器（英語：Chemical oscillator）、動物集群、神經迴路和黑市。

概述

自我組織可在非平衡過程的物理現象，以及化學反應中實現^[2]，在反應中通常稱作自組裝。這一概念在生物學中，從分子到生態系統水平也均有應用。^[3]許多其他學科的文獻也給出了自我組織行為的案例，包括自然科學和社會科學（如經濟學或人類學）。元胞自動機等數學系統中也能觀察到自我組織現象。^[4]自我組織是湧現這一概念的一個例子。^[5]

自我組織依賴於四個基本要素：^[6]

1. 強動態非線性，通常（但未必）涉及正反饋和負反饋
2. 開發與探索的平衡
3. 組分之間的多重相互作用
4. 能量的輸入（克服熵增的自然趨勢，或自由能的損失）

原理

控制論者威廉·羅斯·艾什比於1947年提出了自我組織的最初的原理則。^[7][8]原理指出，任何確定性動力系統都會自發向平衡狀態演化，這種平衡狀態可以視為周圍狀態域中的吸引子。一旦到達那裡，系統接下來的發展就被限制在吸引子中。這種約束意味著其構成組件或子系統之間存在一種相互依賴或協調的形式。用艾什比的話來說，每個子系統都適應了所有其他子系統構成的環境。^[7]

控制論者海因茨·馮·福斯特於1960年提出了「從雜訊產生秩序」的原理。^[9]該原理指出，隨機干擾（「雜訊」）會促進自我組織，使系統在其狀態空間中探索各種狀態。這增加了系統到達「強」或「深」吸引域的機會，然後從那裡迅速進入吸引子本身。生物物理學家亨利·阿特蘭（英語：Henri Atlan）提出「從雜訊產生複雜性」原理（法語：le principe de complexité par le bruit^[10]）^[11][12]，發展了這一概念， 他首先是在1972年出版的L'organisation biologique et la théorie de l'information一書中，然後是在1979年出版的Entre le cristal et la fumée一書中提出了「從雜訊產生複雜性」。物理學家兼化學家伊利亞·普里高津提出了一個類似的原理，稱為「來自波動的秩序」^[13]或「來自混沌的秩序」。^[14]它被應用於問題求解和機器學習的模擬退火方法中。^[15]

參見

• 數學概念：分形 - 隨機圖 - 冪定律 - 六度分隔理論 - 細胞自動機
• 物理概念：熱力學 - 非平衡態熱力學 - 建構理論 - 統計力學 - 相變 - 耗散結構 - 湍流
• 化學概念：反應-擴散系統（英語：Reaction–diffusion system） - 自催化反應
• 生物概念：演化論 - 形態發生 - 內環境穩態 - 協同動力學
• 社會概念：參與組織
• 系統科學概念：控制論 - 自生系統論
• 複雜系統概念：呈展現象 - 演化計算 - 人工生命 - 自組化臨界 - 混沌的邊緣 - 自發秩序 - 介穩態
• 電腦科學概念：群體智能
• 哲學概念：組織形態學 - 互補對（complementary pairs）
• 自組織協同網絡
• 群體築巢行為
• 無為而治

參考文獻

1. Betzler, S. B.; Wisnet, A.; Breitbach, B.; Mitterbauer, C.; Weickert, J.; Schmidt-Mende, L.; Scheu, C. Template-free synthesis of novel, highly-ordered 3D hierarchical Nb₃O₇(OH) superstructures with semiconductive and photoactive properties (PDF). Journal of Materials Chemistry A. 2014, 2 (30): 12005. doi:10.1039/C4TA02202E .
2. Glansdorff, P., Prigogine, I. (1971). Thermodynamic Theory of Structure, Stability and Fluctuations, London: Wiley-Interscience ISBN 0-471-30280-5
3. Compare: Camazine, Scott. Self-organization in Biological Systems. Princeton studies in complexity reprint. Princeton University Press. 20032003 [2016-04-05]. ISBN 978-0-691-11624-2.
4. Ilachinski, Andrew. Cellular Automata: A Discrete Universe. World Scientific. 2001: 2472001. ISBN 978-981-238-183-5. We have already seen ample evidence for what is arguably the single most impressive general property of CA, namely their capacity for self-organization
5. Feltz, Bernard; et al. Self-organization and Emergence in Life Sciences. 2006: 1. ISBN 978-1-4020-3916-4.
6. Bonabeau, Eric; Dorigo, Marco; Theraulaz, Guy. Swarm intelligence: from natural to artificial systems. OUP. 1999: 9–11. ISBN 978-0-19-513159-8.
7. Ashby, W. R. Principles of the Self-Organizing Dynamic System. The Journal of General Psychology. 1947, 37 (2): 125–28. PMID 20270223. doi:10.1080/00221309.1947.9918144.
8. Ashby, W. R. (1962). "Principles of the self-organizing system" （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）, pp. 255–78 in Principles of Self-Organization. Heinz von Foerster and George W. Zopf, Jr. (eds.) U.S. Office of Naval Research.
9. Von Foerster, H. (1960). "On self-organizing systems and their environments" （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）, pp. 31–50 in Self-organizing systems. M.C. Yovits and S. Cameron (eds.), Pergamon Press, London
10. See occurrences （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館） on Google Books.
11. See occurrences （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館） on Google Books.
12. François, Charles (編). International Encyclopedia of Systems and Cybernetics 2nd. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. 2011: 107. ISBN 978-3-11-096801-9.
13. Nicolis, G. and Prigogine, I. (1977). Self-organization in nonequilibrium systems: From dissipative structures to order through fluctuations. Wiley, New York.
14. Prigogine, I. and Stengers, I. (1984). Order out of chaos: Man's new dialogue with nature. Bantam Books.
15. Ahmed, Furqan; Tirkkonen, Olav. Simulated annealing variants for self-organized resource allocation in small cell networks. Applied Soft Computing. January 2016, 38: 762–70. S2CID 10126852. doi:10.1016/j.asoc.2015.10.028.

延伸閱讀

• W. Ross Ashby (1966), Design for a Brain, Chapman & Hall, 2nd edition.
• Per Bak (1996), How Nature Works: The Science of Self-Organized Criticality （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）, Copernicus Books.
• Philip Ball (1999), The Self-Made Tapestry: Pattern Formation in Nature^{[失效連結]}, Oxford University Press.
• Stafford Beer, Self-organization as autonomy: Brain of the Firm 2nd edition Wiley 1981 and Beyond Dispute Wiley 1994.
• Adrian Bejan (2000), Shape and Structure, from Engineering to Nature, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 324 pp.
• Mark Buchanan (2002), Nexus: Small Worlds and the Groundbreaking Theory of Networks W. W. Norton & Company.
• Scott Camazine, Jean-Louis Deneubourg, Nigel R. Franks, James Sneyd, Guy Theraulaz, & Eric Bonabeau (2001) Self-Organization in Biological Systems （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）, Princeton Univ Press.
• Falko Dressler (2007), Self-Organization in Sensor and Actor Networks （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）, Wiley & Sons.
• Manfred Eigen and Peter Schuster (1979), The Hypercycle: A principle of natural self-organization, Springer.
• Myrna Estep (2003), A Theory of Immediate Awareness: Self-Organization and Adaptation in Natural Intelligence, Kluwer Academic Publishers.
• Myrna L. Estep (2006), Self-Organizing Natural Intelligence: Issues of Knowing, Meaning, and Complexity, Springer-Verlag.
• J. Doyne Farmer et al. (editors) (1986), "Evolution, Games, and Learning: Models for Adaptation in Machines and Nature", in: Physica D, Vol 22.
• Carlos Gershenson and Francis Heylighen (2003). "When Can we Call a System Self-organizing?" （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館） In Banzhaf, W, T. Christaller, P. Dittrich, J. T. Kim, and J. Ziegler, Advances in Artificial Life, 7th European Conference, ECAL 2003, Dortmund, Germany, pp. 606–14. LNAI 2801. Springer.
• Hermann Haken (1983) Synergetics: An Introduction. Nonequilibrium Phase Transition and Self-Organization in Physics, Chemistry, and Biology, Third Revised and Enlarged Edition, Springer-Verlag.
• F.A. Hayek Law, Legislation and Liberty, RKP, UK.
• Francis Heylighen (2001): "The Science of Self-organization and Adaptivity" （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）.
• Arthur Iberall (2016), Homeokinetics: The Basics, Strong Voices Publishing, Medfield, Massachusetts.
• Henrik Jeldtoft Jensen (1998), Self-Organized Criticality: Emergent Complex Behaviour in Physical and Biological Systems, Cambridge Lecture Notes in Physics 10, Cambridge University Press.
• Steven Berlin Johnson (2001), Emergence: The Connected Lives of Ants, Brains, Cities, and Software.
• Stuart Kauffman (1995), At Home in the Universe, Oxford University Press.
• Stuart Kauffman (1993), Origins of Order: Self-Organization and Selection in Evolution Oxford University Press.
• J. A. Scott Kelso (1995), Dynamic Patterns: The self-organization of brain and behavior, The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
• J. A. Scott Kelso & David A Engstrom (2006), "The Complementary Nature", The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
• Alex Kentsis (2004), Self-organization of biological systems: Protein folding and supramolecular assembly （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）, Ph.D. Thesis, New York University.
• E.V. Krishnamurthy (2009)", Multiset of Agents in a Network for Simulation of Complex Systems", in "Recent advances in Nonlinear Dynamics and synchronization, (NDS-1) – Theory and applications, Springer Verlag, New York,2009. Eds. K.Kyamakya, et al.
• Paul Krugman (1996), The Self-Organizing Economy, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
• Elizabeth McMillan (2004) "Complexity, Organizations and Change".
• Marshall, A (2002) The Unity of Nature, Imperial College Press: London (esp. chapter 5)
• Müller, J.-A., Lemke, F. (2000), Self-Organizing Data Mining.
• Gregoire Nicolis and Ilya Prigogine (1977) Self-Organization in Non-Equilibrium Systems, Wiley.
• Heinz Pagels (1988), The Dreams of Reason: The Computer and the Rise of the Sciences of Complexity, Simon & Schuster.
• Gordon Pask (1961), The cybernetics of evolutionary processes and of self organizing systems, 3rd. International Congress on Cybernetics, Namur, Association Internationale de Cybernetique.
• Christian Prehofer ea. (2005), "Self-Organization in Communication Networks: Principles and Design Paradigms", in: IEEE Communications Magazine, July 2005.
• Mitchell Resnick (1994), Turtles, Termites and Traffic Jams: Explorations in Massively Parallel Microworlds, Complex Adaptive Systems series, MIT Press.^[缺少ISBN]
• Lee Smolin (1997), The Life of the Cosmos Oxford University Press.
• Ricard V. Solé and Brian C. Goodwin (2001), Signs of Life: How Complexity Pervades Biology], Basic Books.
• Ricard V. Solé and Jordi Bascompte (2006), in Complex Ecosystems （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）, Princeton U. Press
• Soodak, Harry; Iberall, Arthur. Homeokinetics: A Physical Science for Complex Systems. Science. 1978, 201 (4356): 579–582. Bibcode:1978Sci...201..579S. PMID 17794110. S2CID 19333503. doi:10.1126/science.201.4356.579.
• Steven Strogatz (2004), Sync: The Emerging Science of Spontaneous Order, Thesis.
• D'Arcy Thompson (1917), On Growth and Form, Cambridge University Press, 1992 Dover Publications edition.
• J. Tkac, J Kroc (2017), Cellular Automaton Simulation of Dynamic Recrystallization: Introduction into Self-Organization and Emergence "(open source software)" （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館） "Video – Simulation of DRX" （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
• Tom De Wolf, Tom Holvoet (2005), Emergence Versus Self-Organisation: Different Concepts but Promising When Combined, In Engineering Self Organising Systems: Methodologies and Applications, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, volume 3464, pp. 1–15.
• K. Yee (2003), "Ownership and Trade from Evolutionary Games", International Review of Law and Economics, 23.2, 183–197.
• Louise B. Young (2002), The Unfinished Universe^[缺少ISBN]

外部連結

• Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization, Göttingen
• PDF file on self-organized common law with references
• An entry on self-organization at the Principia Cybernetica site （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
• The Science of Self-organization and Adaptivity （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）, a review paper by Francis Heylighen
• The Self-Organizing Systems (SOS) FAQ by Chris Lucas, from the USENET newsgroup comp.theory.self-org.sys
• David Griffeath, Primordial Soup Kitchen （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館） (graphics, papers)
• nlin.AO, nonlinear preprint archive （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）, (electronic preprints in adaptation and self-organizing systems)
• Structure and Dynamics of Organic Nanostructures 網際網路檔案館的存檔，存檔日期April 21, 2016，.
• Metal organic coordination networks of oligopyridines and Cu on graphite 網際網路檔案館的存檔，存檔日期June 11, 2016，.
• Selforganization in complex networks （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館） The Complex Systems Lab, Barcelona
• Computational Mechanics Group at the Santa Fe Institute
• "Organisation must grow" (1939) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館） W. Ross Ashby journal p. 759, from The W. Ross Ashby Digital Archive （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
• Cosma Shalizi's notebook on self-organization from 2003-06-20 （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）, used under the GFDL with permission from author.
• Connectivism:SelfOrganization
• UCLA Human Complex Systems Program （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
• "Interactions of Actors (IA), Theory and Some Applications" 1993 （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館） Gordon Pask's theory of learning, evolution and self-organization (in draft).
• The Cybernetics Society （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
• Scott Camazine's webpage on self-organization in biological systems
• Mikhail Prokopenko's page on Information-driven Self-organisation (IDSO) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
• Lakeside Labs Self-Organizing Networked Systems （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館） A platform for science and technology, Klagenfurt, Austria.
• Watch 32 discordant metronomes synch up all by themselves （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館） theatlantic.com