cD型星系

cD型星系^[1]^[2]或cD星系^[3]，是星系型态分类中的一种类型，是巨大的椭圆星系，D型的子类型，有着恒星的巨大星系晕^[4]。它们可以在一些富星系团接近中心的地区被发现^[5]，它们也被称为超巨椭圆星系^[6]或中心主导星系^[7]。

cD-型是在耶基斯星系分类中的一种类型，耶基斯星类中的一两个类型依然被普遍的使用，包括D类型^[8]。在"cD"中的"c"是指这些种星系都很大，因此是巨大星系，而"D"指的是这些星系的外观是弥漫性的事实^[9]。 A backformation of "cD"背后的讯息通常意味着是中心主导星系 (central Dominant galaxy)^[7]。 cD也经常被认为视周遭最大的星系^[10]^[11]。

cD星系与透镜星系 (S0) 或椭圆星系 (E#) 相似，但是大了许多倍，有一些的半径发展已经超过百万光年^[12]。他们呈现类似椭圆的形状，与巨大的低表面光度外层^[13]。目前，我们认为cD是星系合并的结果^[14]。有些cD有多个星系核 ^[15]。cD星系经常是在最亮团星系 (brightest cluster galaxy，BCG) 中的一种星系^[16]。许多化石星系群星系也类似于cD BCG星系，让一些理论学家推测cD星系是化石星系群发展的结果，然后新的星系团再累积在化石星系群的周围^[17]。然而，cD星系本身尚未被发现是场星系，不同于化石星系群^[13] cD型星系大约有20%是最亮团星系 (BCG)^[13]。

赫柏特 J 路德在1965年率先提出cD星系是在星系团中心的螺旋星系经由星系合并形成的学说^[18]。在此一"吞噬"模式下的成长，会导致cD星系压倒性的直径和亮度^[19]，在星团中第二亮的星系通常是低亮度的，通常这是已经被"吃"的结果^[20]。被"吃"星系的残骸通常会呈现扩散的气体和尘埃晕^[19]，这些晕的直径可以达到300万光年^[14]。依据星系星系团的质量不同，估计cD星系团贡献的质量在1－7%，而所有的重子质量在12.5维里半径之内 ^[21]。

动态摩擦

动态摩擦被认为在cD星系于星系团中心形成的过程中扮演着非常重要的角色^[22]。当大星系在星系团中的运动吸引了较小的星系和暗物质进入它的尾迹时，这个过程就开始了。这些追随在大星系后面的过密物质和稳定施加在其上的引力，导致大星系的速度减缓。当它是去动能，大星系会逐渐盘旋著朝向星系团的中心。一旦如此，大星系中的恒星、气体、尘埃和暗物质，以及它的尾迹中的星系，都将如同之前加入它们的星系，有着相同的命运^[23]。经由这样的累积，将造成巨大或超大的弥漫或椭圆星系^[24]。合并的中心或合并星系残骸在很长的时间中都能被辨认，始cD星系会呈现多"核"的状态^[25]

cD星系也被用来定义星系团。一个有着cD星系存在于中心的星系团被称为cD型星系团或cD星系团 ^[26]。

英仙座A^[27]。
NGC 6166^[28]。
IC 1101：已知星系中直径最大的 (大约550万光年)^[29]^[30]^[31]。
M87：在室女座星系团中心的星系。
NGC 1399：在天炉座星系团。

[1]
Sidereal Times, June 2002, page 3
[2]
Proceedings of PATRAS 2008, page 59
[3]
Galaxy Clusters, Jan Hartlap, page 3
[4]
Surface Photometry and the Structure of Elliptical Galaxies, "Chapter 11. cD and Brightest Cluster Galaxies" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, John Kormendy, S. Djorgovski, 1989
[5]
A Dictionary of Astronomy, "cD galaxy" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） (accessed 14 April 2010)
[6]
encyclopedia.com "supergiant elliptical" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
[7]
"Uncertainties on Clusters of Galaxies Distances", C. Adami, M.P. Ulmer, 18 July 2000,
arXiv:astro-ph/0007265
(accessed 14 April 2010)
[8]
An Atlas of DRAGNs, "Glossary" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, J. P. Leahy, 15 March 1997 (accessed 14 April 2010)
[9]
Global Telescope Network, "Types of Galaxies" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Kevin McLin, 14 April 2010 (accessed 14 April 2010)
[10]
Universe Today, "What is the Largest Galaxy?" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Fraser Cain (accessed 14 April 2010)
[11]
EurekAlert, "Scientists observe largest explosion in space" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Andrea Gibson, 5 January 2005 (accessed 15 April 2010)
[12]
Encyclopædia Britannica, "cD-galaxy" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） (accessed 14 April 2010)
[13]
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, "Intracluster light and the extended stellar envelopes of cD galaxies: an analytical description", Marc S. Seigar, Alister W. Graham, Helmut Jerjen, July 2007, Volume 378, Issue 4, pp. 1575-1588, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.11899.x, Bibcode：2007MNRAS.378.1575S,
arXiv:astro-ph/0612229v2
(accessed 15 April 2010)
[14]
COSMOS - The SAO Encyclopedia of Astronomy, "CD Galaxies" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Swinburne University of Technology (accessed 14 April 2010)
[15]
Internet Encyclopedia of Science, "D galaxy" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, David Darling (accessed 14 April 2010)
[16]
IAU Symposium 245, "Star Formation in Bulges from GALEX", Sukyoung K. Yi, 5 September 2007, doi:10.1017/S174392130801819X,
arXiv:0709.0177
(accessed 14 April 2010)
[17]
Universe Today, "How Do Fossil Galaxy Clusters Form so Quickly?" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Fraser Cain, 27 April 2006 (accessed 15 April 2010)
[18]
Rood, H. J. The Dynamics of the Coma Cluster of Galaxies (PhD论文). The University of Michigan. 1965. Bibcode:1965PhDT.........3R. |author=和|last=只需其一 (帮助)
[19]
Curious About Astronomy?. [28 March 2007]. （原始内容存档于2007-03-22）.
[20]
Hausman, M. J.; Ostriker, J. P. Cannibalism among the galaxies - Dynamically produced evolution of cluster luminosity functions. The Astrophysical Journal Letters. November 1977, 217: L125–L128. Bibcode:1977ApJ...217L.125O. doi:10.1086/182554.
[21]
Section 8 of Vikhlinin, A.; Kravtsov, A.; Forman, W.; Jones, C.; Markevitch, M.; Murray, S. S.; Van Speybroeck, L. Chandra Sample of Nearby Relaxed Galaxy Clusters: Mass, Gas Fraction, and Mass-Temperature Relation (PDF). The Astrophysical Journal (Chicago, Illinois, USA: University of Chicago Press). April 2006, 640 (2): 691–709 [March 12, 2012]. Bibcode:2006ApJ...640..691V. arXiv:astro-ph/0507092 . doi:10.1086/500288. （原始内容存档于2020-05-06）.
[22]
Merritt, David. Relaxation and tidal stripping in rich clusters of galaxies. I. Evolution of the mass distribution. The Astrophysical Journal. January 1983, 264: 24–48. Bibcode:1983ApJ...264...24M. doi:10.1086/160571.
[23]
Merritt, David. Relaxation and tidal stripping in rich clusters of galaxies. II. Evolution of the luminosity distribution. The Astrophysical Journal. January 1984, 276: 26–37. Bibcode:1984ApJ...276...26M. doi:10.1086/161590.
[24]
Merritt, David. Relaxation and tidal stripping in rich clusters of galaxies. III. Growth of a massive central galaxy. The Astrophysical Journal. February 1985, 289: 18–32. Bibcode:1985ApJ...289...18M. doi:10.1086/162860.
[25]
Merritt, David. The nature of multiple-nucleus cluster galaxies. The Astrophysical Journal. May 1984, 280: L5–8. Bibcode:1984ApJ...280L...5M. doi:10.1086/184257.
[26]
PDF, "'Tuning Fork' Classification of Rich Clusters of Galaxies", Herbert J.Rood, Gummuluru N. Sastry, June 1971, doi:10.1086/129128, Bibcode：1971PASP...83..313R (accessed 14 April 2010)
[27]
Nature, "FIGURE 4. Optical, radio and X-ray images of the Perseus cluster." （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） 9 July 2009, ISSN 0028-0836 ; EISSN 1476-4687 ; (accessed 15 April 2010)
[28]
Nature, "FIGURE 3. The entropy of the intracluster medium in spherical shells of radius r." （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） 9 July 2009, ISSN 0028-0836 ; EISSN 1476-4687 ; (accessed 15 April 2010)
[29]
Science, "The Central Galaxy in Abell 2029: An Old Supergiant" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Juan M. Uson, Stephen P. Boughn, and Jeffrey R. Kuhn, 26 October 1990, Vol. 250, no. 4980, pp.539-540, doi:10.1126/science.250.4980.539
[30]
Ellensburg Daily Record, "Galaxy Found", United Press International, 27 October 1990, p.16
[31]
Lodi News-Sentinel, "Giant Galaxy Discovered", UPI, 26 October 1990, pg.9

PDF - "A Preliminary Classification of the Forms of Galaxies According to Their Stellar Population" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, W. W. Morgan, Yerkes Obeservatory, 1958, doi:10.1086/127415, Bibcode：1959PASP...71..394M (PASP 70)
"Intracluster light and the extended stellar envelopes of cD galaxies: an analytical description" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Marc S. Seigar, Alister W. Graham, Helmut Jerjen, July 2007 doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.11899.x, Bibcode：2007MNRAS.378.1575S,
arXiv:astro-ph/0612229v2
(MNRAS 07/2007)

巨椭圆星系 (gE)
巨大星系
椭圆星系 (E#)
透镜星系 (S0, SA0, SAB0, SB0, E9)
D型星系

[1] [1]
Sidereal Times, June 2002, page 3

[2] [2]
Proceedings of PATRAS 2008, page 59

[3] [3]
Galaxy Clusters, Jan Hartlap, page 3

[4] [4]
Surface Photometry and the Structure of Elliptical Galaxies, "Chapter 11. cD and Brightest Cluster Galaxies" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, John Kormendy, S. Djorgovski, 1989

[5] [5]
A Dictionary of Astronomy, "cD galaxy" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） (accessed 14 April 2010)

[6] [6]
encyclopedia.com "supergiant elliptical" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）

[UoCoGd-7] [7]
"Uncertainties on Clusters of Galaxies Distances", C. Adami, M.P. Ulmer, 18 July 2000,
arXiv:astro-ph/0007265
(accessed 14 April 2010)

[8] [8]
An Atlas of DRAGNs, "Glossary" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, J. P. Leahy, 15 March 1997 (accessed 14 April 2010)

[9] [9]
Global Telescope Network, "Types of Galaxies" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Kevin McLin, 14 April 2010 (accessed 14 April 2010)

[10] [10]
Universe Today, "What is the Largest Galaxy?" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Fraser Cain (accessed 14 April 2010)

[11] [11]
EurekAlert, "Scientists observe largest explosion in space" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Andrea Gibson, 5 January 2005 (accessed 15 April 2010)

[12] [12]
Encyclopædia Britannica, "cD-galaxy" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） (accessed 14 April 2010)

[ICyese-cD-13] [13]
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, "Intracluster light and the extended stellar envelopes of cD galaxies: an analytical description", Marc S. Seigar, Alister W. Graham, Helmut Jerjen, July 2007, Volume 378, Issue 4, pp. 1575-1588, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.11899.x, Bibcode：2007MNRAS.378.1575S,
arXiv:astro-ph/0612229v2
(accessed 15 April 2010)

[cosmos-sao-CDgalaxies-14] [14]
COSMOS - The SAO Encyclopedia of Astronomy, "CD Galaxies" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Swinburne University of Technology (accessed 14 April 2010)

[15] [15]
Internet Encyclopedia of Science, "D galaxy" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, David Darling (accessed 14 April 2010)

[16] [16]
IAU Symposium 245, "Star Formation in Bulges from GALEX", Sukyoung K. Yi, 5 September 2007, doi:10.1017/S174392130801819X,
arXiv:0709.0177
(accessed 14 April 2010)

[17] [17]
Universe Today, "How Do Fossil Galaxy Clusters Form so Quickly?" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Fraser Cain, 27 April 2006 (accessed 15 April 2010)

[18] [18]
Rood, H. J. The Dynamics of the Coma Cluster of Galaxies (PhD论文). The University of Michigan. 1965. Bibcode:1965PhDT.........3R. |author=和|last=只需其一 (帮助)

[curious-19] [19]
Curious About Astronomy?. [28 March 2007]. （原始内容存档于2007-03-22）.

[20] [20]
Hausman, M. J.; Ostriker, J. P. Cannibalism among the galaxies - Dynamically produced evolution of cluster luminosity functions. The Astrophysical Journal Letters. November 1977, 217: L125–L128. Bibcode:1977ApJ...217L.125O. doi:10.1086/182554.

[Vikhlinin-21] [21]
Section 8 of Vikhlinin, A.; Kravtsov, A.; Forman, W.; Jones, C.; Markevitch, M.; Murray, S. S.; Van Speybroeck, L. Chandra Sample of Nearby Relaxed Galaxy Clusters: Mass, Gas Fraction, and Mass-Temperature Relation (PDF). The Astrophysical Journal (Chicago, Illinois, USA: University of Chicago Press). April 2006, 640 (2): 691–709 [March 12, 2012]. Bibcode:2006ApJ...640..691V. arXiv:astro-ph/0507092 . doi:10.1086/500288. （原始内容存档于2020-05-06）.

[DM1983-22] [22]
Merritt, David. Relaxation and tidal stripping in rich clusters of galaxies. I. Evolution of the mass distribution. The Astrophysical Journal. January 1983, 264: 24–48. Bibcode:1983ApJ...264...24M. doi:10.1086/160571.

[DM1984-23] [23]
Merritt, David. Relaxation and tidal stripping in rich clusters of galaxies. II. Evolution of the luminosity distribution. The Astrophysical Journal. January 1984, 276: 26–37. Bibcode:1984ApJ...276...26M. doi:10.1086/161590.

[DM1985-24] [24]
Merritt, David. Relaxation and tidal stripping in rich clusters of galaxies. III. Growth of a massive central galaxy. The Astrophysical Journal. February 1985, 289: 18–32. Bibcode:1985ApJ...289...18M. doi:10.1086/162860.

[25] [25]
Merritt, David. The nature of multiple-nucleus cluster galaxies. The Astrophysical Journal. May 1984, 280: L5–8. Bibcode:1984ApJ...280L...5M. doi:10.1086/184257.

[26] [26]
PDF, "'Tuning Fork' Classification of Rich Clusters of Galaxies", Herbert J.Rood, Gummuluru N. Sastry, June 1971, doi:10.1086/129128, Bibcode：1971PASP...83..313R (accessed 14 April 2010)

[27] [27]
Nature, "FIGURE 4. Optical, radio and X-ray images of the Perseus cluster." （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） 9 July 2009, ISSN 0028-0836 ; EISSN 1476-4687 ; (accessed 15 April 2010)

[28] [28]
Nature, "FIGURE 3. The entropy of the intracluster medium in spherical shells of radius r." （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） 9 July 2009, ISSN 0028-0836 ; EISSN 1476-4687 ; (accessed 15 April 2010)

[29] [29]
Science, "The Central Galaxy in Abell 2029: An Old Supergiant" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Juan M. Uson, Stephen P. Boughn, and Jeffrey R. Kuhn, 26 October 1990, Vol. 250, no. 4980, pp.539-540, doi:10.1126/science.250.4980.539

[30] [30]
Ellensburg Daily Record, "Galaxy Found", United Press International, 27 October 1990, p.16

[31] [31]
Lodi News-Sentinel, "Giant Galaxy Discovered", UPI, 26 October 1990, pg.9

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cD型星系

动态摩擦

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cD型星系

动态摩擦

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cD星系

成长

cD星系团

cD星系的例子

参考资料

延伸阅读

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