語言模塊

語言模塊，又稱為「語言官能 」，是人腦或認知系統中的一種假設結構，含有與生俱來的語言能力，最初由諾姆·喬姆斯基提出。目前關於大腦模塊化的研究正在認知科學和神經科學領域進行，不過目前的觀點相較於喬姆斯基和傑瑞·福多在1980年代所提出的觀點弱上許多。在今日術語中，模塊化指的是專門化處理：語言處理在大腦中是專門化的，這意指語言處理是局部發生在不同的區域，不同於像是視覺輸入這種其它類型的資訊處理。目前的觀點認為，語言既非發生在分隔的區域，也不是基於像喬治·萊考夫所提出的那種通用的加工原則，而是在某種程度上模塊化的，被認為是認知功能中的一個特定的認知技巧（英語：Cognitive skill）或認知區域。^[1][2][3]

模塊的含義

人腦中「語言專用模塊」的概念，起源於喬姆斯基的普遍文法 （UG）理論。由於對語言模塊性問題的理解不同而引發了爭論。^[4] 但是，在文獻中存在一些共識，即認為模塊是以資訊封裝的方式處理特定表徵（ 領域特定性（英語：Domain specificity） ）（Bryson和Stein，2001） ^{[5] [6]} 。 ^[7] 應當對「解剖模塊性」和「功能模塊性」作出區分，前者認為在大腦中存在一個負責處理相關歷程的「區域」，而後者則取消了解剖模塊性，認為資訊封裝分散在大腦的各個部分中。 ^[8]

沒有單一的解剖模塊

現有證據指出，沒有一個解剖區域專門用來處理語言。瓦達測試（英語：Wada test）（Wada test）使用異戊巴比妥鈉來麻醉一個腦半球 ，結果表明左半球對語言處理至關重要。^[9] 然而，神經成像的結果指出，語言處理並非只有單獨區域涉及，而是由許多不同區域涉及語言處理中的不同環節，^{[10] [11] [12]}不只是存在於左半球。^[13] 此外，個別區域似乎具有許多不同的功能。^[14] 因此，在解剖模塊內發生語言處理的程度被視為輕微的。 然而，正如許多人所建議的那樣，即使語言處理是在整個大腦中進行，語言處理依然可以是模塊性處理^{[15] [16]}。亦即，語言處理可以在功能模塊中進行。

沒有雙重分離的習得或發展

一種用於證明模塊性的常見方法，是找到一個雙重分離（英語：Dissociation (neuropsychology)）。這會分成兩組，第一組是語言能力嚴重受損但認知能力正常的人，第二組則是認知能力嚴重受損但語言能力完好的人。^[17][18][19] 雖然在左半球臨側裂區（perisylvian area）的廣泛病變，可能會使人無法產生或感知語言（完全性失語症），^[20] 但是沒有一種已知個案，在面臨嚴重的非語言性惡化時，語言能夠完全完好無損。^[21] 因此，基於這一證據，語言處理不能被賦予功能模塊的地位。

然而，來自發展研究（Development studies）用來支持語言模塊的證據也被提出（最着名的是史迪芬·平克^[22]），即所謂「特定型語言障礙（英語：Specific language impairment）和威廉氏症候群之間的分離現象（dissociation）」，前者是語言混亂，而其他心智能力則不受影響，^[23] 後者則是存在嚴重的心智缺陷，語言能力卻倖免於難^[24]。更近期和實證性強的研究表明，這些主張可能不正確，因此大大削弱了對分離現象的支持。 舉例來說，布洛克^[25]還有Mervis和Beccera的回顧工作^[26]證明，威廉氏症候群患者的語言能力並不比失去語言能力的患者的預測表現還要好。 另外，關於特定型語言障礙究竟是一種語言障礙，還是病因來自更普遍的認知問題（如語音），有着相當多的爭論。^{[27][28][29][30]} 因此，目前還沒有找到證明模塊性所需的證據，即保持完好的語言能力卻有嚴重的智力退化。因此，發展資料的證據幾乎無法證明語言處理發生在模塊中。

因此，雙重分離的證據未能佐證模塊性，雖然缺乏分離並不能證明模塊是錯的，但是該結果並無法從邏輯上推論出模塊性。

缺乏資訊的封裝

如果語言是一個模塊，它的確會是資訊封裝的。 然而，有證據表明事實並非如此。例如，在麥格克效應（英語：McGurk effect）（McGurk effect）中，看着說某個音素的唇型，同時卻播放另一個音素，就產生了混合音素的知覺。^[31][32] 另外，坦恩豪斯（Tanenhaus）、斯皮維-諾爾頓（Spivey-Knowlton）、埃伯哈德（Eberhard）和塞迪維（Sedivy）（1995年）證明，視覺資訊會介入句法處理。此外，假定的語言模塊應該只會處理與語言有關的資訊（即領域特定性（英語：Domain specificity））， 然而，有證據表明，用於輔助語言的區域也介入了運動控制^[33]]和非語言的聲音理解。^[34]雖然在低於當前成像技術的解像度下，仍可能會發生分離現象的處理過程，但是將所有證據綜合起來後，資訊封裝的根據就變得很薄弱。

替代理論

另一種觀點認為，語言發生在一個更普遍的認知系統中。^[35] 對此的反駁則是，人類語言似乎有着「特殊性」^[36] 。這通常有着證據支持，例如所有教導動物人類語言的嘗試都失敗了（Hauser et al. 2003年），以及語言可以被有選擇地破壞（單一的分離現象）^[37] 。這些證據表明，語言處理可能需要專用的計算。 理論家們沒有假設「純粹的」模塊性，而是選擇了一個較弱的版本，即在功能特定的神經電路和計算中，實現領域特定性。例如，按傑肯道夫（Jackendoff）和平克的話來說「我們不該以一個整體，而是以成分結合的方式來研究語言，其中一些成分是語言特有的，另一些成分則是根植於更普遍的能力」^[38]

相關辯論仍在持續進行。

參見

• 語言中樞
• 言語知覺的運動理論
• 諾姆·喬姆斯基
• 心智模塊
• 語言習得裝置

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