蜂后

蜂后又稱蜂王、女王蜂，是蜜蜂群體中唯一能正常產卵的雌性蜂，蜂后通常是蜂群中其它成員的母親，因此也稱之為母蜂。一個蜜蜂群體中可能有幾千到幾萬隻蜜蜂，但只會有一隻蜂后。除了產卵，蜂后的各種腺體還會釋放不同的信息素，調節工蜂的行為和生理，維持蜂群的穩定^[1]。

特徵和生命周期

蜂后會從蜂王台中出生，預計成為蜂后的幼蟲會持續食用蜂王漿直到發育完成，未持續食用蜂王漿的雌性幼蟲會成為工蜂。蜂后的壽命一般約26個月^[2]，但2010年代以來大部分蜂后的壽命不到一年^[3]。蜂后一生都依賴於食用蜂王漿來延長壽命。

從卵發育成蜂后羽化需要的時間依蜜蜂的品種而不同，東方蜜蜂需要15天，西方蜜蜂需要16天，而西方蜜蜂的亞種東非蜂需15天。

先羽化的新蜂后會尋找尚未羽化的蜂后並摧毀潛在的競爭者，若多隻新蜂后同時羽化，新蜂后之間將展開激烈的廝殺，最後只會留下一隻新蜂后。

交尾與繁殖

蜂后羽化後大約7～10天交尾，交尾後2～3天開始產卵。處女蜂后是指未發育完成、未達到交尾期而還未交尾的蜂后；或指錯過交尾時刻的蜂后，後者由於未能受精，只能以孤雌生殖產下雄蜂。

即使成功受精，若然糧食短缺，工蜂會減少對蜂后的餵食，導致蜂后無法或減少產下後代。

處女蜂王在空中與多頭雄蜂（平均12隻^[4]）交尾，獲取的精子儲存在受精囊中供其一生產卵使用^[5]。蜂后的一雌多雄交尾方式增加了蜂群內後代工蜂的遺傳多樣性^[6]，提高了蜂群的抗病能力和適應度^[7]^[8]^[9]。

蜂后的有效交尾頻率對蜂群的發展具有重要影響，充分的交尾頻率（有效交尾頻率高於7）有助於蜂群的穩定發展和提高生產能力^[2]。

長久只能產下雄蜂的處女蜂后，最終很可能被工蜂推翻，以新蜂后作替換；或是如果工蜂無法造出新蜂后，雄蜂增多，又缺少新工蜂填補，最終導致蜂群滅亡。

病蟲害

蜜蜂作為多種病原體的宿主，容易受到各種病蟲害的影響，而蜂王也不例外。主要的病蟲害包括蜂蟎、微孢子蟲以及多種病毒。^[2]

最為嚴重的蜜蜂病蟲害之一是狄斯瓦蟎（Varroa destructor）^[10]。武氏蜂盾蟎（Acarapis woodi）在蜂王中的寄生也較為普遍^[11]，感染會導致蜂王體重下降，受精囊內儲存的精子數量減少^[12]。

感染蜜蜂的微孢子蟲有蜜蜂微孢子蟲（Nosema apis）和東方蜜蜂微孢子蟲（Nosema ceranae）^[13]，這兩種微孢子蟲均可感染蜂王，並導致組織損傷^[14]^[15]。感染蜂王后，其卵母細胞表面形態發生改變，內部卵黃顆粒分解，部分線粒體退化，同時腸上皮細胞增生、圍食膜退化，進而導致蜂王產下的卵中有大比例的卵不能孵化^[16]。

已經鑑定出超過30種蜜蜂病毒，其中中已在蜂王體內檢測到的病毒包括殘翅病毒（Deformed wing virus）、狄斯瓦蟎病毒-1（Varroa destructor virus-1）、類瓦蟎病毒（Varroa destructor Macula-like virus）、慢性麻痹病毒（Slow bee paralysis virus）、黑蜂王台病毒（Black queen cell virus）、蜜蜂慢性麻痹病毒（Chronic bee paralysis virus）、蜜蜂急性麻痹病毒（Acute bee paralysis virus）、以色列急性麻痹病毒（Israeli acute paralysis virus）、囊狀幼蟲病毒（Sacbrood virus）以及克什米爾蜜蜂病毒（Kashmir bee virus）等^[2]。蜂王感染病毒通常不會出現明顯症狀^[17]，但某些病毒感染，如殘翅病毒可能導致蜂王翅膀畸形^[18]。

參考文獻

[1]
Slessor, KN; Winston, ML; Le Conte, Y. Pheromone communication in the honeybee (Apis mellifera L.).. Journal of chemical ecology. 2005-11, 31 (11): 2731–45. PMID 16273438. doi:10.1007/s10886-005-7623-9.
[2]
杜瀚超; 袁春穎，丁桂玲. 蜜蜂蜂王质量及其性状表现影响因素研究进展. 環境昆蟲學報. 2023, 45 (1): 30–41 [2024-02-25]. （原始內容存檔於2024-02-25）.
[3]
Tarpy, David R.; vanEngelsdorp, Dennis; Pettis, Jeffrey S. Genetic diversity affects colony survivorship in commercial honey bee colonies. Naturwissenschaften. 2013-08, 100 (8): 723–728. doi:10.1007/s00114-013-1065-y.
[4]
Tarpy, D. R.; Nielsen, R.; Nielsen, D. I. A scientific note on the revised estimates of effective paternity frequency in Apis. Insectes Sociaux. 2004-05-01, 51 (2): 203–204. doi:10.1007/s00040-004-0734-4.
[5]
Boomsma, JJ; Baer, B; Heinze, J. The evolution of male traits in social insects.. Annual review of entomology. 2005, 50: 395–420. PMID 15822204. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.50.071803.130416.
[6]
Palmer, Kellie A.; Oldroyd, Benjamin P. Evolution of multiple mating in the genus Apis. Apidologie. 2000-03, 31 (2): 235–248. doi:10.1051/apido:2000119.
[7]
Seeley, TD; Tarpy, DR. Queen promiscuity lowers disease within honeybee colonies.. Proceedings. Biological sciences. 2007-01-07, 274 (1606): 67–72. PMID 17015336. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3702.
[8]
Mattila, HR; Seeley, TD. Genetic diversity in honey bee colonies enhances productivity and fitness.. Science (New York, N.Y.). 2007-07-20, 317 (5836): 362–4. PMID 17641199. doi:10.1126/science.1143046.
[9]
Ding, G; Xu, H; Oldroyd, BP; Gloag, RS. Extreme polyandry aids the establishment of invasive populations of a social insect.. Heredity. 2017-11, 119 (5): 381–387. PMID 28832579. doi:10.1038/hdy.2017.49.
[10]
Calderone, Nicholas W.; Lin, Sisi; Kuenen, Lodewyk P.S. Differential infestation of honey bee, Apis mellifera , worker and queen brood by the parasitic mite Varroa destructor. Apidologie. 2002-07, 33 (4): 389–398. doi:10.1051/apido:2002024.
[11]
Pettis, J. S.; Dietz, A.; Eischen, F. A. Incidence rates of Acarapis woodi (Rennie) in queen honey bees of various ages. Apidologie. 1989, 20 (1): 69–75. doi:10.1051/apido:19890107.
[12]
Camazine; et al. How Healthy are Commercially-produced U.S. Honey Bee Queens?. American Bee Journal. 1998, 138 (9): 677–680.
[13]
Fries, Ingemar; Chauzat, Marie-Pierre; Chen, Yan-Ping; Doublet, Vincent; Genersch, Elke; Gisder, Sebastian; Higes, Mariano; McMahon, Dino P; Martín-Hernández, Raquel; Natsopoulou, Myrsini; Paxton, Robert J; Tanner, Gina; Webster, Thomas C; Williams, Geoffrey R. Standard methods for Nosema research. Journal of Apicultural Research. 2013-01, 52 (1): 1–28. doi:10.3896/IBRA.1.52.1.14.
[14]
Loskotova, J.; Peroutka, M.; Vesely, V. NOSEMA DISEASE OF HONEYBEE QUEENS (APIS MELLIFICA L.). Apidologie. 1980, 11 (2): 153–161. doi:10.1051/apido:19800205.
[15]
Traver, Brenna E.; Fell, Richard D. Low natural levels of Nosema ceranae in Apis mellifera queens. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology. 2012-07, 110 (3): 408–410. doi:10.1016/j.jip.2012.04.001.
[16]
Hassanein, M. H. Studies on the Effect of Infection with Nosema apis on the Physiology of the Queen Honey-bee. Journal of Cell Science. 1951-06-01, S3–92 (18): 225–231. doi:10.1242/jcs.s3-92.18.225.
[17]
Amiri, E; Strand, MK; Tarpy, DR; Rueppell, O. Honey Bee Queens and Virus Infections.. Viruses. 2020-03-17, 12 (3). PMID 32192060. doi:10.3390/v12030322.
[18]
Williams, GR; Rogers, RE; Kalkstein, AL; Taylor, BA; Shutler, D; Ostiguy, N. Deformed wing virus in western honey bees (Apis mellifera) from Atlantic Canada and the first description of an overtly-infected emerging queen.. Journal of invertebrate pathology. 2009-04, 101 (1): 77–9. PMID 19373971. doi:10.1016/j.jip.2009.01.004.

[1] [1]
Slessor, KN; Winston, ML; Le Conte, Y. Pheromone communication in the honeybee (Apis mellifera L.).. Journal of chemical ecology. 2005-11, 31 (11): 2731–45. PMID 16273438. doi:10.1007/s10886-005-7623-9.

[hjkcxb202301003-2] [2]
杜瀚超; 袁春穎，丁桂玲. 蜜蜂蜂王质量及其性状表现影响因素研究进展. 環境昆蟲學報. 2023, 45 (1): 30–41 [2024-02-25]. （原始內容存檔於2024-02-25）.

[3] [3]
Tarpy, David R.; vanEngelsdorp, Dennis; Pettis, Jeffrey S. Genetic diversity affects colony survivorship in commercial honey bee colonies. Naturwissenschaften. 2013-08, 100 (8): 723–728. doi:10.1007/s00114-013-1065-y.

[4] [4]
Tarpy, D. R.; Nielsen, R.; Nielsen, D. I. A scientific note on the revised estimates of effective paternity frequency in Apis. Insectes Sociaux. 2004-05-01, 51 (2): 203–204. doi:10.1007/s00040-004-0734-4.

[5] [5]
Boomsma, JJ; Baer, B; Heinze, J. The evolution of male traits in social insects.. Annual review of entomology. 2005, 50: 395–420. PMID 15822204. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.50.071803.130416.

[6] [6]
Palmer, Kellie A.; Oldroyd, Benjamin P. Evolution of multiple mating in the genus Apis. Apidologie. 2000-03, 31 (2): 235–248. doi:10.1051/apido:2000119.

[7] [7]
Seeley, TD; Tarpy, DR. Queen promiscuity lowers disease within honeybee colonies.. Proceedings. Biological sciences. 2007-01-07, 274 (1606): 67–72. PMID 17015336. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3702.

[8] [8]
Mattila, HR; Seeley, TD. Genetic diversity in honey bee colonies enhances productivity and fitness.. Science (New York, N.Y.). 2007-07-20, 317 (5836): 362–4. PMID 17641199. doi:10.1126/science.1143046.

[9] [9]
Ding, G; Xu, H; Oldroyd, BP; Gloag, RS. Extreme polyandry aids the establishment of invasive populations of a social insect.. Heredity. 2017-11, 119 (5): 381–387. PMID 28832579. doi:10.1038/hdy.2017.49.

[10] [10]
Calderone, Nicholas W.; Lin, Sisi; Kuenen, Lodewyk P.S. Differential infestation of honey bee, Apis mellifera , worker and queen brood by the parasitic mite Varroa destructor. Apidologie. 2002-07, 33 (4): 389–398. doi:10.1051/apido:2002024.

[11] [11]
Pettis, J. S.; Dietz, A.; Eischen, F. A. Incidence rates of Acarapis woodi (Rennie) in queen honey bees of various ages. Apidologie. 1989, 20 (1): 69–75. doi:10.1051/apido:19890107.

[12] [12]
Camazine; et al. How Healthy are Commercially-produced U.S. Honey Bee Queens?. American Bee Journal. 1998, 138 (9): 677–680.

[13] [13]
Fries, Ingemar; Chauzat, Marie-Pierre; Chen, Yan-Ping; Doublet, Vincent; Genersch, Elke; Gisder, Sebastian; Higes, Mariano; McMahon, Dino P; Martín-Hernández, Raquel; Natsopoulou, Myrsini; Paxton, Robert J; Tanner, Gina; Webster, Thomas C; Williams, Geoffrey R. Standard methods for Nosema research. Journal of Apicultural Research. 2013-01, 52 (1): 1–28. doi:10.3896/IBRA.1.52.1.14.

[14] [14]
Loskotova, J.; Peroutka, M.; Vesely, V. NOSEMA DISEASE OF HONEYBEE QUEENS (APIS MELLIFICA L.). Apidologie. 1980, 11 (2): 153–161. doi:10.1051/apido:19800205.

[15] [15]
Traver, Brenna E.; Fell, Richard D. Low natural levels of Nosema ceranae in Apis mellifera queens. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology. 2012-07, 110 (3): 408–410. doi:10.1016/j.jip.2012.04.001.

[16] [16]
Hassanein, M. H. Studies on the Effect of Infection with Nosema apis on the Physiology of the Queen Honey-bee. Journal of Cell Science. 1951-06-01, S3–92 (18): 225–231. doi:10.1242/jcs.s3-92.18.225.

[17] [17]
Amiri, E; Strand, MK; Tarpy, DR; Rueppell, O. Honey Bee Queens and Virus Infections.. Viruses. 2020-03-17, 12 (3). PMID 32192060. doi:10.3390/v12030322.

[18] [18]
Williams, GR; Rogers, RE; Kalkstein, AL; Taylor, BA; Shutler, D; Ostiguy, N. Deformed wing virus in western honey bees (Apis mellifera) from Atlantic Canada and the first description of an overtly-infected emerging queen.. Journal of invertebrate pathology. 2009-04, 101 (1): 77–9. PMID 19373971. doi:10.1016/j.jip.2009.01.004.

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