生態形態學

生態形態學（英語：ecomorphology或ecological morphology）是研究生物的生態角色與其適應形態（特別是解剖學形態）之間關係的交叉學科^[1]。物種所處的棲息環境會直接或間接的影響其形態和生態位，而生態形態學的目標是鑑定不同物種間的這些區別^[2]，目前研究重點是通過測量行為性狀的實際表現與適應度將形態與生態位相聯繫。

發展

生態形態學的起源可追溯至19世紀後期^[3]，當時形態學的重點是描述與比較不同物種的外形特徵，主要用於鳥類分類。但在20世紀 30年代和40年代，生態形態學因為新分類技術的興起而出現學科衰落，但在50年代因為演化形態學的興起又使得學科復興^[4]。高速攝影和X光攝影可以對身體部位的活動進行觀察，而肌電圖則可以監測肌肉活動，這使得形態學家可以更好的研究生物的行為細節。在50年代和60年代，生態學家也開始使用形態學測量來研究演化和生態問題，之後由華盛頓大學的詹姆斯·卡爾（James R. Karr）和佛羅里達州立大學的弗朗西斯·詹姆斯（Frances Crews James）兩人在1975年首次使用了「生態形態學」一詞^[5]。隨後脊椎動物形態和生態條件之間的聯繫被現代生態形態學的概念確定^[6]^[7]。

與其它分科的關係

生態形態學與功能形態學

功能形態學（functional morphology）與生態形態學不同，主要關注因組織形態變化產生的特徵變化^[8]；而生態形態學則主要關注周圍生態系統和環境對體態的影響。功能形態學經常注重研究骨骼肌形態和運動功能（比如力量和關節靈活度）之間的關係^[9]，這意味着功能形態學研究可以在實驗室內完成，但生態形態學則必須基於實地數據。此外，功能形態學研究本身無法提供足夠數據來對物種對環境的適應做出結論，但其數據卻可以被生態形態學充分利用^[3]。很有代表性的例子是太陽魚的頜骨結構、口腔尺寸和顎肌強度可以用來研究其進食習慣和可以適應的生態位^[10]。

行為學

行為學（behavioural study）將功能形態學和生態形態學相結合，在生物學中的重要性與日俱增。這類研究曾展示鳥類覓食時的運動能力會影響其食譜偏好^[11]，漁業學和鳥類學中也經常使用生態形態學和行為學研究^[12]。另有研究將消化道的生態形態學特徵與食譜和進食量相聯繫^[13]，而消化道容積與代謝率之間有正向的相關聯繫。生態形態學研究也經常被用來通關判斷宿主對棲息地的使用來鑑定寄生蟲是否存在^[14]。

應用

理解生態形態學對研究物種的生物多樣性的起源和誘因十分必要。生態形態學通過理解生態位對形態變化的影響，可以展現不同的繁衍方式、感官能力和生存策略^[15]^[16]。硬骨魚類因為演化史很長、多樣性很高、適應性強且具有數個生命階段，常常被用來研究生態形態學^[15]，比如對非洲麗魚形態多樣性的研究^[17]。

判斷古棲息地

物種為了更好適應生態位而產生形態演化的歷時可以用來幫助判定其史前棲息地的特徵和性質。目前這種思路已經廣泛應用在牛科化石的研究上^[18]，因為古牛類的化石的尺寸和輻射範圍都十分客觀^[19]。牛類的系統發生樹與其棲息地偏好之間很強的相關性說明形態學和棲息地之間做聯繫需要依賴分類階元，而且有證據表明進一步研究之前存在的棲息地的生態形態特徵有利於鑑定與棲息地相關的物種的系統發生學風險分析^[19]。

演化形態學

演化形態學（evolutionary morphology）研究物種為了更好適應環境而出現的形態變化^[3]^[16]，主要手段是比較隨着棲息地變化而產生的體態變化，而在演化形態史建立之前必須知道物種同源特徵的背景歷史。演化形態學只能為提供一個名義上的演化生物學解釋，而全面解釋物種演化則需要其生態史的深度了解。

目前有研究側重將生態形態學與系統發生學和個體發生學結合來更好的理解演化形態學^[15]。

生態形態學與棲息地偏好

有觀點認為物種多樣性和特定環境之間的相關聯繫未必是因為生態形態學因素，而是物種主動根據自身形態選擇遷徙到更偏好的生態系統，然而目前並沒有研究能夠提供確鑿證據支持這種理論。有研究試圖用身體形態預測魚類對棲息地的偏好，但沒有發現明顯差別^[20]^[21]。

另見

參考

[1]
Ecomorphology. About.com. [2013-05-21]. （原始內容存檔於2013-05-14）.
[2]
Norton, Stephen. The role of ecomorphological studies in the comparative biology of fishes (PDF). University of South Florida. [2024-09-30]. （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2018-09-20）.
[3]
Bock, W. J. 1994. Concepts and methods in ecomorphology. Journal of Biosciences 19:403–413. [1]
[4]
Beer, G. 1954. Archaeopteryx and evolution. The Advancement of Science 11: 160–170. [2] （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）
[5]
Karr, James R.; James, Frances C. Eco-morphological configurations and convergent evolution of species and communities. Ecology and Evolution of Communities. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 1975: 258–291. ISBN 9780674224445.
[6]
Bock, W. 1977. Toward an ecological morphology. Vogelwarte 29: 127–135
[7]
Leisler, B. 1977. Morphological Aspects of Ecological Specializations in Bird Genera. American Zoologist 19(3): 1014–1014.[3]
[8]
Bock, W. Van Walhert, J. 1965. The role of adaptive mechanisms in the origin of higher levels of organisation. Systematic Biology 14(4): 272–287. [4]^{[失效連結]}
[9]
Bock, W., G. Lanzavecchia, and R. Valvassori. 1991. Levels of complexity and organismal organization. Selected Symposia and Monographs UZI. Vol 5 181–212. [5]
[10]
Wainwright, P. C. Ecological Explanation through Functional Morphology: The Feeding Biology of Sunfishes. Ecology. 1996, 77 (5): 1336–1343. Bibcode:1996Ecol...77.1336W. JSTOR 2265531. doi:10.2307/2265531.
[11]
Moermond, T., and J. Denslow. 1983. Fruit choice in neotropical birds: effects of fruit type and accessibility on selectivity. The Journal of Animal Ecology 52(2): 407–420. [6] （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）
[12]
Sibbing, F., L. Nagelkerke, and J. Osse. 1994. Ecomorphology as a tool in fisheries-Identification and ecotyping of Lake Tana Barbs (Barbus-Intermedius COmplex), Ethiopia. Netherlands Journal of Agricultural Science 42:77–85. Royal Netherlands Soc Agr Sci.[7]
[13]
Griffen, B. D., and H. Mosblack. 2011. Predicting diet and consumption rate differences between and within species using gut ecomorphology. The Journal of animal ecology 80:854–63.[8]
[14]
Goodman, B. A., and P. T. J. Johnson. 2011. Ecomorphology and disease: cryptic effects of parasitism on host habitat use, thermoregulation, and predator avoidance. Ecology 92:542–548.[9]
[15]
Norton, S. F., J. J. Luczkovich, and P. J. Motta. 1995. The role of ecomorphological studies in the comparative biology of fishes. Environmental Biology of Fishes 44:287–304.[10]
[16]
Moreno-Arias, Rafael A.; Bloor, Paul; Calderón-Espinosa, Martha L. Evolution of ecological structure of anole communities in tropical rain forests from north-western South America. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 2020, 190 (1): 298–313 [2024-09-30]. doi:10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaa006. （原始內容存檔於2023-03-15）.
[17]
Fryer, G. T. and Iles, T. D. The cichlid fishes of the great lakes of Africa: their biology and evolution. 1972. Oliver and Boyd, Cornell University.[11] （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）
[18]
Plummer, T. W., Bishop, L. C., Hertel, F. 2008. Habitat preference of extant African bovids based on astragalus morphology: operationalizing ecomorphology for palaeoenvironmental reconstruction. Journal of Archaeological Science 35(11): 3016–3027 [12]
[19]
Scott, R. S., and W. A. Barr. 2014. Ecomorphology and phylogenetic risk: Implications for habitat reconstruction using fossil bovids. Journal of human evolution 73:47–57 [13]
[20]
Chan, M. D. 2001. Fish ecomorphology: predicting habitat preferences of stream fishes from their body shape. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.[14]
[21]
Betz, Oliver. Ökomorphologie: Integration von Form, Funktion und Ökologie bei der Analyse morpho-logischer Strukturen [Ecomorphology: Integration of form, function, and ecology in the analysis of morphological structures]. Mitteilungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Allgemeine und Angewandte Entomologie. 2006, 15: 409–416 （German）.

[1] [1]
Ecomorphology. About.com. [2013-05-21]. （原始內容存檔於2013-05-14）.

[2] [2]
Norton, Stephen. The role of ecomorphological studies in the comparative biology of fishes (PDF). University of South Florida. [2024-09-30]. （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2018-09-20）.

[BOCKREV-3] [3]
Bock, W. J. 1994. Concepts and methods in ecomorphology. Journal of Biosciences 19:403–413. [1]

[DEBEER-4] [4]
Beer, G. 1954. Archaeopteryx and evolution. The Advancement of Science 11: 160–170. [2] （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）

[KarrJames-5] [5]
Karr, James R.; James, Frances C. Eco-morphological configurations and convergent evolution of species and communities. Ecology and Evolution of Communities. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 1975: 258–291. ISBN 9780674224445.

[BOCK1977-6] [6]
Bock, W. 1977. Toward an ecological morphology. Vogelwarte 29: 127–135

[Leisler1977-7] [7]
Leisler, B. 1977. Morphological Aspects of Ecological Specializations in Bird Genera. American Zoologist 19(3): 1014–1014.[3]

[BOCKVAN-8] [8]
Bock, W. Van Walhert, J. 1965. The role of adaptive mechanisms in the origin of higher levels of organisation. Systematic Biology 14(4): 272–287. [4]^{[失效連結]}

[BOCK28-9] [9]
Bock, W., G. Lanzavecchia, and R. Valvassori. 1991. Levels of complexity and organismal organization. Selected Symposia and Monographs UZI. Vol 5 181–212. [5]

[sunfish-10] [10]
Wainwright, P. C. Ecological Explanation through Functional Morphology: The Feeding Biology of Sunfishes. Ecology. 1996, 77 (5): 1336–1343. Bibcode:1996Ecol...77.1336W. JSTOR 2265531. doi:10.2307/2265531.

[birds1-11] [11]
Moermond, T., and J. Denslow. 1983. Fruit choice in neotropical birds: effects of fruit type and accessibility on selectivity. The Journal of Animal Ecology 52(2): 407–420. [6] （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）

[x-12] [12]
Sibbing, F., L. Nagelkerke, and J. Osse. 1994. Ecomorphology as a tool in fisheries-Identification and ecotyping of Lake Tana Barbs (Barbus-Intermedius COmplex), Ethiopia. Netherlands Journal of Agricultural Science 42:77–85. Royal Netherlands Soc Agr Sci.[7]

[gut-13] [13]
Griffen, B. D., and H. Mosblack. 2011. Predicting diet and consumption rate differences between and within species using gut ecomorphology. The Journal of animal ecology 80:854–63.[8]

[disease-14] [14]
Goodman, B. A., and P. T. J. Johnson. 2011. Ecomorphology and disease: cryptic effects of parasitism on host habitat use, thermoregulation, and predator avoidance. Ecology 92:542–548.[9]

[Norton-15] [15]
Norton, S. F., J. J. Luczkovich, and P. J. Motta. 1995. The role of ecomorphological studies in the comparative biology of fishes. Environmental Biology of Fishes 44:287–304.[10]

[anole-16] [16]
Moreno-Arias, Rafael A.; Bloor, Paul; Calderón-Espinosa, Martha L. Evolution of ecological structure of anole communities in tropical rain forests from north-western South America. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 2020, 190 (1): 298–313 [2024-09-30]. doi:10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaa006. （原始內容存檔於2023-03-15）.

[frye-17] [17]
Fryer, G. T. and Iles, T. D. The cichlid fishes of the great lakes of Africa: their biology and evolution. 1972. Oliver and Boyd, Cornell University.[11] （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）

[Plummer-18] [18]
Plummer, T. W., Bishop, L. C., Hertel, F. 2008. Habitat preference of extant African bovids based on astragalus morphology: operationalizing ecomorphology for palaeoenvironmental reconstruction. Journal of Archaeological Science 35(11): 3016–3027 [12]

[Scott-19] [19]
Scott, R. S., and W. A. Barr. 2014. Ecomorphology and phylogenetic risk: Implications for habitat reconstruction using fossil bovids. Journal of human evolution 73:47–57 [13]

[chan-20] [20]
Chan, M. D. 2001. Fish ecomorphology: predicting habitat preferences of stream fishes from their body shape. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.[14]

[21] [21]
Betz, Oliver. Ökomorphologie: Integration von Form, Funktion und Ökologie bei der Analyse morpho-logischer Strukturen [Ecomorphology: Integration of form, function, and ecology in the analysis of morphological structures]. Mitteilungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Allgemeine und Angewandte Entomologie. 2006, 15: 409–416 （German）.

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