穆斯塔法·凱末爾·阿塔圖克的個人崇拜

穆斯塔法·凱末爾·阿塔圖克的個人崇拜始於穆斯塔法·凱末爾·阿塔圖克的一生，^[1]在他於1938年去世後，他的繼任者、共和人民黨與反對黨成員皆對他有了個人崇拜，^[2]在他本人在世時也出現了有限度的個人崇拜，藉以推廣、鞏固其作為土耳其共和國開國者兼首任總統所推行的社會、政治改革。^[3]有人將此等崇拜與蘇聯的個人崇拜相提並論，^[4]並被稱為「北韓以外最怪誕的由國家支持的個人崇拜」。^[5]儘管土耳其表面上為多黨制國家，但至少有半個世紀的時間，土耳其陸軍一直都是該國的主要政治力量。^[6]

概述

第一次世界大戰後，鄂圖曼帝國被協約國擊敗並慘遭瓜分，穆斯塔法·凱末爾遂領導土耳其民族運動與希臘、亞美尼亞、法國、英國與其他侵略國進行獨立戰爭。在其領導下，土耳其共和國於1923年正式成立。1934年，土耳其大國民議會授予其「阿塔圖克」（土耳其人之父）之尊稱。相關的頭銜還包括「偉大的領袖」、「永恆的指揮官」、「校長」、「永恆的首領」。^[7]^[8]

對阿塔圖克的紀念直到21世紀仍然為土耳其政治與社會的重要駔成部分。^[12]土耳其幾乎每座城市都有以他的名字命名的街道，在城市廣場、學校與公共辦公場所也常常見到他的雕像，後兩者甚至還有他的肖像。阿塔圖克在1933年的共和國十周年慶典上發表的演講的中使用了該句話：「說我是土耳其人的人是多麼的幸福啊（英語：How happy is the one who says I am a Turk）。」隨後這句話在土耳其國內被廣泛使用，人們也經常在他的雕像前看到這句話。儘管在2013-18年期間被刪除，但他仍然是學生必讀誓詞（英語：Student Oath (Turkey)）的一部分。^[13]該誓言後來在2021年又再次被刪除。^[14]

人們有時會把阿塔圖克的個人崇拜與努爾蘇丹·納扎爾巴耶夫與薩帕爾穆拉特·尼亞佐夫等中亞專制統治者的個人崇拜相提並論，^[15]但是由於阿塔圖克在土耳其進行了民主與進步的改革，而且他的大部分雕像都是在他去世之後才被建立起來的，兩者之間實際上相差甚大。舉例來說，在1950年代以前，土耳其貨幣上只會有現任總統的頭像，但是時任總理阿德南·曼德列斯為了在政治上打擊競爭對手伊斯麥特·伊諾努，他通過了一項讓已故的阿塔圖克再次成為貨幣上的頭像之法律，並不讓伊諾努的頭像出現在貨幣上。^[2]曼德列斯政府雖然反對阿塔圖克的共和人民黨（該黨在議會中乃民主黨（英語：Democrat Party (Turkey, 1946–1961)）的反對黨），但是最終其還是在1953年，在阿塔圖克去世15年後，將後者的遺體遷入陵墓。^[2]他還在1951年通過一項法律，將侮辱「阿塔圖克的記憶」定為刑事犯罪。^[2]

《經濟學人》在2012年時寫道，對阿塔圖克的個人崇拜「讓這個國家充滿了那位偉人的半身像與肖像」，「土耳其將軍們利用他的名字推翻了四屆政府，絞死了一位總理，並攻擊了共和國的敵人」。^[16]根據這份英國周刊報導，「核心伊斯蘭主義藐視阿塔圖克，因為他在1924年廢除哈里發制度，並將虔誠從公共空間中抹除。為此他們造謠稱他到處拈花惹草加酗酒，甚至是個加密猶太人（英語：Crypto-Judaism）。」^[16]

2008年，《國家身分》上的一篇文章上也討論了阿塔圖克在土耳其無處不在的存在：

阿塔圖克的故居存在於充斥着阿塔圖克影子的環境中，他的面孔與言論出現在所有的官方文件、建築物、電視頻道、報紙、校園、硬幣與鈔票上。此外，無論其個人信仰如何，每個土耳其人都生活在一個民族主義成為標準政治話語的一部份之國家，政治家、教師和記者每次都在呼籲民族與阿塔圖克。然而他們並非唯一的受害者，無處不在的阿塔圖克紀念品只能部分歸功於國家的贊助：阿塔圖克的臉經常出現在超市櫃枱後面、理髮店、音像店、書店與銀行海報上，甚至還有掛在汽車後照鏡上的阿塔圖克護身符，以及裝飾衣襟的阿塔圖克別針。即便有土耳其人沒有參加這種自發性紀念活動，他/她也會知道如何「解讀」阿塔圖克的符號世界。^[17]

阿塔圖克保護法

1951年7月25日，時任總理阿德南·曼德列斯^[18]在阿塔圖克去世13年後通過了土耳其第5816號法律（英語：Law on crimes committed against Atatürk），^[19]藉以保護「阿塔圖克的記憶」不會受到任何土耳其公民的冒犯。^[20]2011年，因「侮辱阿塔圖克」而被定罪的案件便有48起，^[16]最高可以判處三年有期徒刑。^[21]該法的解釋相當廣泛，除了上述對阿塔圖克的紀念外，還包括對其遺產的保護。在國內訴訟中，那些質疑官方對共和國最初幾年與阿塔圖克的作用之積極評價的人都被指控。^[22]

紀念雕像

第一座阿塔圖克雕像是在1926年由奧地利雕塑家海因里希·克里佩爾在伊斯坦堡薩拉基里奧角雕刻而成。^[23]如今阿塔圖克的雕像已經遍佈土耳其各地。^[24]^[25]

參見

參考來源

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[23]
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文獻

Copeaux, Etienne, ″La transcendance d'Atatürk″, in Mayeur-Jaouen Catherine (ed.), Saints et héros du Moyen-Orient contemporain, Paris, Maisonneuve et Larose, 2002, pp. 121–138.
Glyptis, Leda. Living up to the father: The national identity prescriptions of remembering Atatürk; his homes, his grave, his temple. National Identities (London). December 2008, 10 (4): 353–372. ISSN 1460-8944. S2CID 145591969. doi:10.1080/14608940802271647.
Mandel, Mike, and Zakari, Chantal, The State of Ata. The Contested Imagery of Power in Turkey, Eighteen Publications, Boston, 2010, 256-xvi p.

進一步閱讀

The Myth of 'New Turkey': Kemalism and Erdoganism as Two Sides of the Same Coin. Dr. Ceren Şengül. News About Turkey. [2024-01-06]. （原始內容存檔於2024-01-12）.

[1] [1]
Berger, Lutz. The Leader as Father. Personality Cults in Modern Turkey. Kemalism as a Fixed Variable in the Republic of Turkey. Ergon-Verlag. 2019: 119–128. ISBN 978-3-95650-632-1.

[Mango2002-2] [2]
Andrew Mango. Ataturk: The Biography of the founder of Modern Turkey. Overlook. 26 August 2002: 36. ISBN 978-1-59020-924-0. In 1937, Bayar had sought to outdo İnönü in his adulation of Atatürk. Now the Democrat Party government outdid him in signs of respect for Atatürk's memory. His body was transferred to a grandiose mausoleum in 1953. A law was passed in 1951 making it a criminal offense to insult Atatürk's memory.

[3] [3]
Tezcür, Güneş Murat. Muslim Reformers in Iran and Turkey: The Paradox of Moderation. University of Texas Press. 2010: 70. ISBN 9780292773639. A man who was either irreligious or did not wear his faith on his sleeve, Atatürk established a cult of personality that has survived until now. He did not bother to attend the Friday prayers, a symbol of ruler-people unity...

[4] [4]
Çandar, Cengiz (2000). Ataturk's Ambiguous Legacy （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）. The Wilson Quarterly, 24(4), 88.

[5] [5]
Bose, Sumantra. Secular States, Religious Politics. Cambridge University Press. 2018: 63 [2023-11-28]. ISBN 978-1-108-47203-6. （原始內容存檔於2023-09-02）（英語）.

[6] [6]
Reilly, James A. Fragile Nation, Shattered Land: The Modern History of Syria. Bloomsbury Publishing. 2018: 161. ISBN 978-1-78673-450-1 （英語）.

[7] [7]
Levine, Lynn A. Frommer's Turkey. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Pub. 2010: 31. ISBN 9780470877739. Mustafa Kemal was given the name Atatürk ("father of the Turks") by the Grand National Assembly

[8] [8]
Villar, Juan. The Seventh Wonder. Coral Springs, FL: Llumina Press. 2004: 28. ISBN 9781595262417. The Turkish parliament proclaimed Mustafa's last name to be Ataturk, "Father of the Turks." Today, his picture hangs in every government office and business establishment, his state appears in every city, and his statues forbid that anything bad or ridiculous be said about him. Free Speech was not among Ataturk's reforms.

[9] [9]
Akyol, Mustafa. How Turkey Sabotaged Its Future. The New York Times. 2014 [2023-09-02]. ISSN 0362-4331 （美國英語）.

[10] [10]
Yavuz, M. Hakan. Islamic Political Identity in Turkey. Oxford University Press. 2003. ISBN 978-0-19-028965-2 （英語）.

[11] [11]
Tucker, Ernest. The Middle East in Modern World History. Routledge. 2016: 166. ISBN 978-1-315-50824-5 （英語）.

[12] [12]
Foreign Press on Cyprus, Volumes 10-11, Public Information Office, 1997 "It is the army's self-appointed role to maintain the secular character of a state that is 90 percent Muslim, but whose modern founder Kemal Ataturk forcibly wrenched into Westernization. The Ataturk cult of personality still towers over Turkey"

[13] [13]
Court rules Student Oath should be reinstated in Turkey. Ahval News. Oct 18, 2018 [2023-11-28]. （原始內容存檔於2021-08-16）.

[14] [14]
Andımız kararının gerekçesi açıklandı. www.haberturk.com. 2021-06-10 [2022-10-10]. （原始內容存檔於2022-10-13）（土耳其語）.

[15] [15]
Allison, Roy. Challenges for the former Soviet south. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press. 1996: 27. ISBN 9780815703211. A state-promoted "cult of personality" is developing rapidly in some of the Central Asian republics (although here, as in other ... This was clearly modeled on Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, the authoritarian modernizing leader of republican Turkey.

[economist-16] [16]
A secularist's lament. The Economist. 25 February 2012 [17 March 2013]. （原始內容存檔於2018-01-16）.

[FOOTNOTEGlyptis2008356-17] [17]
Glyptis 2008，第356頁.

[18] [18]
Seibert, Thomas. Some Turks ready to abolish law that protects memory of Ataturk. The National. 16 August 2011 [13 July 2013]. （原始內容存檔於2017-05-30）.

[19] [19]
Bali, Rıfat N. New documents on Atatürk: Atatürk as viewed through the eyes of American diplomats. Isis Press. 2007: 32.

[20] [20]
Kaya, Mehmed S. The Zaza Kurds of Turkey: A Middle Eastern Minority in a Globalised Society. London: Tauris Academic Studies. 2009: 209. ISBN 9781845118754.

[21] [21]
Finkel, Andrew. Turkey: What Everyone Needs to Know. New York: Oxford University Press. 2012: 32. ISBN 9780199733040.

[22] [22]
Baranowska, Grażyna. Bachmann, Klaus , 編. Memory laws in Turkey: protecting the memory of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Criminalizing History. Legal Restrictions on Statements and Interpretations of the Past in Germany, Poland, Rwanda, Turkey and Ukraine (Berlin: Peter Lang). 2020: 107–125 [2023-11-28]. ISBN 978-3-631-81353-9. （原始內容存檔於2021-05-12）.

[Hurriyet-23] [23]
EĞRİKAVUK, IŞIL. Unaesthetic Atatürk monuments remain taboo in Turkey. Hurriyet. 9 January 2011 [21 March 2013]. （原始內容存檔於2016-03-04）.

[24] [24]
Navaro-Yashin, Yael. Faces of the State: Secularism and Public Life in Turkey. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press. 2002: 89. ISBN 9780691088457. Today the statue that is most frequently encountered all over Turkey is still that of Ataturk.

[25] [25]
Üngör, Ugur Ümit. The Making of Modern Turkey:Nation and State in Eastern Anatolia, 1913-1950. Oxford University Press. 2011: 180. ISBN 9780191640766. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was the central focus of public manifestations of memory. Sculptures of him spread across the country in a matter of years and well before his death adorned every main square in the country.

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