拜占庭歷

拜占庭歷是一套拜占庭（東羅馬）帝國與東正教會歷史上使用過的曆法，歷史上被稱作「自創世以來的羅馬年（古希臘語：Ἔτη Γενέσεως Κόσμου κατὰ Ῥωμαίους）^[1]」或「創世年（古希臘語：Ἔτος Κτίσεως Κόσμου）」或「世界年（古希臘語：Ἔτος Κόσμου）」。東正教的普世牧首轄區於約公元691年至1728年^[2]，拜占庭帝國官方於988年-1453年，羅斯諸國於約988年-約1700年使用這套曆法，其他受拜占庭影響較大的國家，如塞爾維亞、保加利亞歷史上也曾使用這種曆法。

這套曆法與儒略曆基本相同，主要區別有兩點，一是以每年9月1日為新年第一天，紀年法則採用世界紀元，即以上帝創世的第一天為紀年之始。拜占庭宗教界以《舊約聖經》七十士譯本中的記載為基礎推算的上帝創世之年相當於公元前5509年，拜占庭歷的第一年為前5509年9月1日-前5508年8月31日。

來源

1. Pavel Kuzenkov. "How Old is The World?: The Byzantine Era and its Rivals". Institute for World History, Moscow, Russia. In: Elizabeth Jeffreys, Fiona K. Haarer, Judith Gilliland. Proceedings of the 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies: London, 21–26 August 2006: Vol. 3, Abstracts of Communications. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2006. pp. 23–24.
2. （希臘語） "Οικουμενικόν Πατριαρχείον", ΘΗΕ, τόμ. 09, εκδ. Μαρτίνος Αθ., Αθήνα 1966, στ. 778.
   （英語） "Ecumenical Patriarchate". Religious and Ethical Encyclopedia. Vol. 9., Athens, 1966. p. 778.

外部鏈接

• Main feasts and commemorations. Orthodox Church of America. [2018-10-09]. （原始內容存檔於2018-10-09）.
• Byzantine ways of reckoning time
• Calendar Era: Late Antiquity and Middle Ages: Christian era （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館） at SMSO Encyclopedia (Saudi Medical Site Online).
• Howlett, J. Biblical Chronology （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）. In, The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent). New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908.
• Chronology of the Biblical Patriarchs.
• Church Calendar at Orthodoxwiki.

Hebrew calendar

• The Era of the Creation at Jewish Encyclopedia.
• The Jewish Calendar （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館） by Karl Hagen (medievalist).

更多閱讀

一手來源

• Doukas（英語：Doukas）. Decline and Fall of Byzantium To The Ottoman Turks. An Annotated Translation by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, 1975.
• George Syncellus（英語：George Syncellus）. The Chronography of George Synkellos: a Byzantine Chronicle of Universal History from the Creation. Transl. Prof. Dr. William Adler & Paul Tuffin. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
• 阿伯拉罕·伊本·埃茲拉, Abraham ben Meïr, (1092–1167). Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Genesis (Bereshit). (Vol.1 – Genesis). Transl. and annotated by H. Norman Strickman & Arthur M. Silver. Menorah Pub. Co., New York, N.Y., 1988.
• 塞克斯圖斯·尤利烏斯·阿非利加努斯. Extant Writings III. The Extant Fragments of the Five Books of the Chronography of Julius Africanus.
• 尼基塔斯·霍尼亞提斯. O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates. Transl. by Harry J. Magoulias. Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 1984.
• 老普林尼. 博物志 (老普林尼), XVIII, 210.
• St. 該撒利亞的巴西流. Hexæmeron （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, 2nd Series (NPNF2). Transl. Philip Schaff, D.D., LL.D. (1819–1893): Volume VIII – Basil: Letters and Select Works. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, Michigan.
• St. 普瓦捷的依拉略. On the Trinity. Book IV.
• The Rudder (Pedalion): Comp. Hieromonk Agapius and monk Nicodemus the Hagiorite（英語：Nicodemus the Hagiorite）. First printed and published 1800. Trans. D. Cummings, [from the 5th edition published by John Nicolaides (Kesisoglou the Caesarian) in Athens, Greece in 1908], Chicago: The Orthodox Christian Educational Society, 1957. Repr., New York, N.Y.: Luna Printing Co., 1983.

• 宣信者狄奧法內斯. The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor: Byzantine and Near Eastern History, AD 284–813. Cyril Mango, Roger Scott, Geoffrey Greatrex (Eds.). Oxford University Press, 1997.
• 安條克的狄奧菲魯斯. Theophilus of Antioch to Autolycus. Book III. Chap XXIV (Chronology from Adam) – Chap. XXVIII (Leading Chronological Epochs).

二手來源

21世紀

• Anthony Bryer. "Chronology and Dating". In: Elizabeth Jeffreys, John Haldon, Robin Cormack . The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press, 2008. pp. 31–37.
• Dr. Iaakov Karcz. "Implications of some early Jewish sources for estimates of earthquake hazard in the Holy Land （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）". Annals of Geophysics, Vol. 47, N. 2/3, April/June 2004.
• Fr. Patrick Henry Reardon. Creation and the Patriarchal Histories: Orthodox Christian Reflections on the Book of Genesis. Conciliar Press, 2008.
• Fr. Seraphim Rose（英語：Seraphim Rose）. GENESIS, CREATION and EARLY MAN: The Orthodox Christian Vision. St. Herman of Alaska Brotherhood, Platina, California, 2000.
• Frederick Deland Leete. Christian Brotherhoods. Kessinger Publishing, 2003.
• Paul James-Griffiths. Creation days and Orthodox Jewish Tradition （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）. AnswersinGenesis.org. March 2004.
• Paul Stephenson. "Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c.700–1204: John Skylitzes, "Synopsis Historion": The Year 6508, in the 13th Indiction: the Byzantine dating system". November 2006.
• Pavel Kuzenkov. How old is the World? The Byzantine era κατα Ρωμαίους and its rivals. 21st International Congress of Byzantine Studies, London 2006.
• Prof. Charles Ellis (University of Bristol). "Russian Calendar (988–1917) （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）". The Literary Encyclopedia. 25 September 2008.
• Prof. Dr. Marcus Louis Rautman. "Time." In Daily Life in the Byzantine Empire. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. pp. 3–8.
• Prof. Dr. Muhammad Shamsaddin Megalommatis. "Gueze – 『Ethiopian』: the Counterfeit Millennium". September 8, 2007.
• Prof. Dr. Roger T. Beckwith (D.D., D.Litt.). Calendar, Chronology, and Worship: Studies in Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）. Brill Academic Publishers, 2005. (Dr Beckwith served for twenty years on the Anglican-Orthodox Commission).
• The 正教研習本聖經. St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology. Elk Grove, California, 2008.

20世紀

• Barry Setterfield. Ancient Chronology in Scripture （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）. September 1999.
•  Chisholm, Hugh (編). Chronology. Encyclopædia Britannica 6 (第11版). London: Cambridge University Press: 305–318. 1911.
• Dr. Ben Zion Wacholder. "Biblical Chronology in the Hellenistic World Chronicles". in The Harvard Theological Review, Vol.61, No.3 (Jul., 1968), pp. 451–481.
• Dr. Ben Zion Wacholder. Essays on Jewish Chronology and Chronography. Ktav Pub. House, 1976.
• Dr. Floyd Nolan Jones. Chronology of the Old Testament. Master Books, Arizona, 1993. Repr. 2005. (supports Ussher's chronology, i.e. 4004 BC).
• E.G. Richards. Mapping Time: The Calendar and its History. Oxford University Press, 1998.
• Elias J. Bickerman. Chronology of the Ancient World. 2nd edition. Cornell University Press. 1980.
• Fr. Stanley S. Harakas. The Orthodox Church: 455 Questions and Answers. Light & Life Publishing, Minneapolis, 1988.
• George Ogg. "Hippolytus and the Introduction of the Christian Era". in Vigiliae Christianae, Vol.16, No.1 (Mar., 1962), pp. 2–18.
• Howlett, J. "Biblical Chronology （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）". In The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent). New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908.
• Jack Finegan. Handbook of Biblical Chronology: Principles of Time Reckoning in the Ancient World and Problems of Chronology in the Bible. Hendrickson Publishers, 1998.
• Prof. Dr. William Adler. Time Immemorial: Archaic History and its Sources in Christian Chronography from Julius Africanus to George Syncellus. Washington, D.C. : Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1989.
• K.A. Worp. Chronological Observations on Later Byzantine Documents. 1985. University of Amsterdam.
• Foss, Clive. "Three Apparent Early Examples of the Era of Creation". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, Bd. 31 (1978), pp. 241–246.
• Roger S. Bagnall, K. A. Worp. The Chronological Systems of Byzantine Egypt. Zutphen, 1978.
• V. Grumel. La Chronologie. Presses Universitaires France, Paris. 1958.
• Rev. Philip Schaff (1819–1893), Ed. "Era." Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge New Edition, 13 Vols., 1908–14. Vol. 4, pp. 163 （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）.
• Van der Essen, L. "Chronicon Paschale （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）". In The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent). New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908.
• Yiannis E. Meimaris. Chronological Systems in Roman-Byzantine Palestine and Arabia. Athens, 1992.

19世紀以及更早

• John McClintock, James Strong. Cyclopedia of Biblical, theological, and ecclesiastical literature: Supplement （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）. V.2. Harper, 1887.
• Prof. Fr. Arsenius John Baptist Vuibert (Society of Saint-Sulpice（英語：Society of Saint-Sulpice）). An Ancient History: From the Creation to the Fall of the Western Empire in A.D. 476 （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）. Baltimore: Foley, 1886.
• Samuel Abraham Poznański（英語：Samuel Abraham Poznański）. "Ben Meir and the Origin of the Jewish Calendar". in The Jewish Quarterly Review, Vol. 10, No. 1 (Oct., 1897), pp. 152–161.
• Sir 托馬斯·布朗. Pseudodoxia Epidemica: Book VI. Ch. 1 – Of sundry common opinions Cosmographical and Historical. 1646; 6th ed., 1672. pp. 321–330.
• The Popular Encyclopedia: being a general dictionary of arts, sciences, literature, biography, history, and political economy （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）. (Vol. 3, Part 1). Glasgow: Blackie and Son, 1841.
• Thomas Spencer Baynes. "Chronology: Era of the Creation of the World.」 The Encyclopædia Britannica: a dictionary of arts, sciences, and general literature. 9th Ed., Vol. 5. A. & C. Black, 1833. pp. 709–754.