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美洲原住民語言
維基百科,自由的 encyclopedia
美洲原住民語言並不是一種語言,甚至也不是屬於一種語系,而是美洲所有原住民的各種語言的總稱。其中瑪雅語曾經有自己的文字系統。隨着15世紀末開始西方殖民主義者的到來,美洲原住民數量在幾百年的時間裏銳減,再加上文化的同化,大部分美洲原住民語言都已經滅絕,目前即使會說美洲土著語言的大部分人也是操雙語的人群。因為缺少研究材料,對美洲土著語言的研究很不足,目前對許多美洲土著語言的分類說法不一,尚不能把語系確定下來,只能暫時分為語組,大致有如下個語組,有幾百種以上的語言,有許多語言現在能流利的說的人不足幾十甚至幾個人,大部分已經滅絕。
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Langs_N.Amer.png/640px-Langs_N.Amer.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/SouthAmerican_families_03.png/640px-SouthAmerican_families_03.png)
根據UNESCO的說法,美洲的大多數土著語言都處於嚴重瀕危狀態,許多語言已經成為休眠語言(沒有母語使用者,但有一群遺產語言的使用者)或完全滅絕。大多數廣泛使用的土著語言是南部克丘亞語(主要在南秘魯和玻利維亞使用)和瓜拉尼語(以巴拉圭為中心,與西班牙語共同享有國家語言地位),大約有六七百萬使用者(在瓜拉尼語的情況下,包括許多歐洲血統的人)。只有6種其他語言的使用者超過一百萬;這些語言包括玻利維亞的艾馬拉語和墨西哥的納瓦特爾語,各有將近兩百萬使用者;危地馬拉和墨西哥的瑪雅語言克克其語、基切語和尤卡坦瑪雅語,大約各有一百萬使用者;可能還有一兩種在秘魯和厄瓜多爾的克丘亞語。在美國,根據2010年人口普查,有372,000人報告在家中使用一種土著語言。[1]在加拿大,根據2011年人口普查,有133,000人報告在家中使用一種土著語言。[2]在格陵蘭,約90%的人口講格陵蘭語,這是最廣泛使用的愛斯基摩語。
語系種類
北美洲
- 愛斯基摩-阿留申語系(Eskimo-Aleut)分佈於北極地帶,包括:
- 阿爾吉克語系(Algic)廣泛分佈在北美東海岸,從加拿大東部到美國落磯山以東的廣大地區,主要有以下幾種:
- 阿爾岡昆諸語言(Algonquian)
- 黑腳語
- 夏延語
- 阿拉帕霍語(英語:Arapaho language)
- 克里語
- 奧吉布瓦語
- 波多沃米語(英語:Potawatomi language)
- 福克斯語(英語:Fox language)(Sauk–Fox–Kickapoo)
- 肖尼語(英語:Shawnee language)
- 麻薩諸塞語(英語:Massachusett language)
- 尤羅克語(英語:Yurok language)(Yurok)
- 維約特語(英語:Wiyot language)(Wiyot)
- 阿爾岡昆諸語言(Algonquian)
- 薩利希語系(Salishan)分佈從加拿大西部到美國西部太平洋沿岸:
- 貝拉庫拉語族(Bella Coola)
- 海岸薩利希語族(Coast Salish)
- 內陸薩利希語族(Interior Salish)
- 欽西安語系(英語:Tsimshianic languages)(Tsimshianic)分佈於不列顛哥倫比亞省西北部、克奇坎與安妮特島
- 瓦卡希語系(英語:Wakashan languages)(Wakashan)分佈於北美西北海岸與溫哥華島
- 蘇-卡塔巴語系(英語:Siouan languages)(Siouan–Catawban)分佈於北美大平原大部分:
- 西部蘇語族(英語:Western Siouan languages)(Western Siouan)
- 蘇族語
- 阿西尼博因語(英語:Assiniboine language)(Assiniboine)
- 納科塔語(英語:Stoney language)(Stoney)
- 克羅語(英語:Crow language)(Crow)
- 卡塔巴語族(英語:Catawban languages)†(Catawban†)
- 西部蘇語族(英語:Western Siouan languages)(Western Siouan)
- 基歐瓦-塔諾安語系(英語:Kiowa-Tanoan languages)(Kiowa-Tanoan)分佈於北美大平原,新墨西哥、堪薩斯、奧克拉荷馬與德克薩斯:
- 基歐瓦語(英語:Kiowa language)(Kiowa)
- 傑梅茲語(英語:Jemez language)(Jemez)
- 提瓦語(英語:Tiwa languages)(Tiwa)
- 帖瓦語(英語:Tewa language)(Tewa)
- 卡多語系(英語:Caddoan languages)(Caddoan)分佈於北美大平原,現今分佈於北達科他南部與奧克拉荷馬
- 易洛魁語系(Iroquoian)分佈於北美東部,主要於五大湖東部與聖勞倫斯河流域:
- 塞尼卡語(Seneca)
- 卡尤加語(英語:Cayuga language)(Cayuga)
- 奧農達加語(英語:Onondaga language)(Onondaga)
- 奧內達語(英語:Oneida language)(Oneida)
- 莫霍克語(英語:Mohawk language)(Mohawk)
- 切羅基語(Cherokee)
- 穆斯科吉語系(英語:Muskogean languages)(Muskogean)分佈於美國東南部:
- 契卡索語(英語:Chickasaw language)(Chickasaw)
- 喬克托語(Choctaw)
- 克里克-塞米諾爾語(Creek-Seminole)
- 希奇提-密卡蘇奇語(Hitchiti-Mikasuki)
- 阿帕拉契語(英語:Apalachee language)(Apalachee†)
- 阿拉巴馬語(英語:Alabama language)(Alabama)
- 夸薩蒂語(英語:Koasati language)(Koasati)
中美洲
- 玉曼-科奇米語系(英語:Yuman–Cochimí languages)(Yuman–Cochimí)分佈在美國加利福尼亞州南部與亞利桑那州西部,以及墨西哥下加利福尼亞州
- 猶他-阿茲特克語系分佈從美國猶他州到墨西哥廣大地區
- 努米克語族(英語:Numic languages)
- 北派尤特語(英語:Northern Paiute language)
- 科曼奇語(英語:Comanche language)
- 休休尼語
- 科羅拉多河努米克語(英語:Colorado River Numic language)(Colorado River Numic language)
- 霍皮語(英語:Hopi language)
- 皮馬語族(英語:Piman languages)
- 塔拉烏馬拉語族(英語:Tarahumaran languages)
- 納瓦語族(英語:Nahuan languages)
- 努米克語族(英語:Numic languages)
- 歐托-曼格語系(Oto-Manguean)主要分佈在墨西哥,曾經分佈到尼加拉瓜與哥斯達黎加,包括薩波特克語、米斯特克語、奧托米語(英語:Otomi language)等等
南美洲
- 舒阿爾語系(Shuar)分佈在亞馬遜河上游森林中地區
參考文獻
引用
- Census Shows Native Languages Count. Language Magazine. [2020-08-16] (美國英語).
來源
- Bright, William. (1984). The classification of North American and Meso-American Indian languages. In W. Bright (Ed.), American Indian linguistics and literature (pp. 3–29). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
- Bright, William (Ed.). (1984). American Indian linguistics and literature. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-009846-6.
- Brinton, Daniel G. (1891). The American race. New York: D. C. Hodges.
- Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
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- 北美洲
- Boas, Franz. (1911). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 1). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).
- Boas, Franz. (1922). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 2). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).
- Boas, Franz. (1929). Classification of American Indian languages. Language, 5, 1–7.
- Boas, Franz. (1933). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 3). Native American legal materials collection, title 1227. Glückstadt: J.J. Augustin.
- Bright, William. (1973). North American Indian language contact. In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), Linguistics in North America (part 1, pp. 713–726). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hauge: Mouton.
- Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996). Languages. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-048774-9.
- Goddard, Ives. (1999). Native languages and language families of North America (rev. and enlarged ed. with additions and corrections). [Map]. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press (Smithsonian Institution). (Updated version of the map in Goddard 1996). ISBN 0-8032-9271-6.
- Goddard, Ives. (2005). The indigenous languages of the southeast. Anthropological Linguistics, 47 (1), 1–60.
- Mithun, Marianne. (1990). Studies of North American Indian Languages. Annual Review of Anthropology, 19(1): 309–330.
- Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X.
- Powell, John W. (1891). Indian linguistic families of America north of Mexico. Seventh annual report, Bureau of American Ethnology (pp. 1–142). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. (Reprinted in P. Holder (Ed.), 1966, Introduction to Handbook of American Indian languages by Franz Boas and Indian linguistic families of America, north of Mexico, by J. W. Powell, Lincoln: University of Nebraska).
- Powell, John W. (1915). Linguistic families of American Indians north of Mexico by J. W. Powell, revised by members of the staff of the Bureau of American Ethnology. (Map). Bureau of American Ethnology miscellaneous publication (No. 11). Baltimore: Hoen.
- Sebeok, Thomas A. (Ed.). (1973). Linguistics in North America (parts 1 & 2). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hauge: Mouton. (Reprinted as Sebeok 1976).
- Sebeok, Thomas A. (Ed.). (1976). Native languages of the Americas. New York: Plenum.
- Sherzer, Joel. (1973). Areal linguistics in North America. In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), Linguistics in North America (part 2, pp. 749–795). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hauge: Mouton. (Reprinted in Sebeok 1976).
- Sherzer, Joel. (1976). An areal-typological study of American Indian languages north of Mexico. Amsterdam: North-Holland.
- Sletcher, Michael, 『North American Indians』, in Will Kaufman and Heidi Macpherson, eds., Britain and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History, (2 vols., Oxford, 2005).
- Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978–present). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 1–20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1–3, 16, 18–20 not yet published).
- Vaas, Rüdiger: 『Die Sprachen der Ureinwohner』. In: Stoll, Günter, Vaas, Rüdiger: Spurensuche im Indianerland. Hirzel. Stuttgart 2001, chapter 7.
- Voegelin, Carl F.; & Voegelin, Florence M. (1965). Classification of American Indian languages. Languages of the world, Native American fasc. 2, sec. 1.6). Anthropological Linguistics, 7 (7): 121-150.
- Zededa, Ofelia; Hill, Jane H. (1991). The condition of Native American Languages in the United States. In R. H. Robins & E. M. Uhlenbeck (Eds.), Endangered languages (pp. 135–155). Oxford: Berg.
- Debian North American Indigenous Languages Project (頁面存檔備份,存於互聯網檔案館)
- 南美洲
- Adelaar, Willem F. H.; & Muysken, Pieter C. (2004). The languages of the Andes. Cambridge language surveys. Cambridge University Press.
- Fabre, Alain. (1998). "Manual de las lenguas indígenas sudamericanas, I-II". München: Lincom Europa.
- Kaufman, Terrence. (1990). Language history in South America: What we know and how to know more. In D. L. Payne (Ed.), Amazonian linguistics: Studies in lowland South American languages (pp. 13–67). Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-70414-3.
- Kaufman, Terrence. (1994). The native languages of South America. In C. Mosley & R. E. Asher (Eds.), Atlas of the world's languages (pp. 46–76). London: Routledge.
- Key, Mary R. (1979). The grouping of South American languages. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag.
- Loukotka, Čestmír. (1968). Classification of South American Indian languages. Los Angeles: Latin American Studies Center, University of California.
- Mason, J. Alden. (1950). The languages of South America. In J. Steward (Ed.), Handbook of South American Indians (Vol. 6, pp. 157–317). Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology bulletin (No. 143). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.
- Migliazza, Ernest C.; & Campbell, Lyle. (1988). Panorama general de las lenguas indígenas en América. Historia general de América (Vol. 10). Caracas: Instituto Panamericano de Geografía e Historia.
- Rodrigues, Aryon. (1986). Linguas brasileiras: Para o conhecimento das linguas indígenas. São Paulo: Edições Loyola.
- Rowe, John H. (1954). Linguistics classification problems in South America. In M. B. Emeneau (Ed.), Papers from the symposium on American Indian linguistics (pp. 10–26). University of California publications in linguistics (Vol. 10). Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Sapir, Edward. (1929). Central and North American languages. In The encyclopædia britannica: A new survey of universal knowledge (14 ed.) (Vol. 5, pp. 138–141). London: The Encyclopædia Britannica Company, Ltd.
- Voegelin, Carl F.; & Voegelin, Florence M. (1977). Classification and index of the world's languages. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 0-444-00155-7.
外部連結
- Catálogo de línguas indígenas sul-americanas (頁面存檔備份,存於互聯網檔案館)
- Diccionario etnolingüístico y guía bibliográfica de los pueblos indígenas sudamericanos
- Towards a general typology of South American indigenous languages. A bibliographical database
- South American Languages
- Society to Advance Indigenous Vernaculars of the United States (頁面存檔備份,存於互聯網檔案館) (SAIVUS)
- Indigenous Peoples Languages: Articles, News, Videos
- Documentation Center of the Linguistic Minorities of Panama
- The Archive of the Indigenous Languages of Latin America
- Indigenous Language Institute (頁面存檔備份,存於互聯網檔案館)
- The Society for the Study of the Indigenous Languages of the Americas (頁面存檔備份,存於互聯網檔案館) (SSILA)
- Southern Oregon Digital Archives First Nations Tribal Collection (頁面存檔備份,存於互聯網檔案館) (collection of ethnographic, linguistic, & historical material)
- Center for the Study of the Native Languages of the Plains and Southwest
- Project for the Documentation of the Languages of Mesoamerica
- Programa de Formación en Educación Intercultural Bilingüe para los Países Andinos (頁面存檔備份,存於互聯網檔案館)
- Native American Language Center (University of California at Davis)
- Native Languages of the Americas (頁面存檔備份,存於互聯網檔案館)
- International Journal of American Linguistics (頁面存檔備份,存於互聯網檔案館)
- Our Languages (Saskatchewan Indian Cultural Centre)
- Swadesh Lists of Brazilian Native Languages