智商

智商
智商
	瑞文氏標準推理測驗的試題
ICD-9-CM	94.01
MedlinePlus	001912

智能商數（德語：Intelligenzquotient），簡稱智商（德語：IQ），是用智力測試測量人在其年齡段的認知能力（「智力」）的得分。人的智商呈正態分布，目前主要的智力測驗（包含最常被使用的「韋克斯勒成人智力量表」），都採用「離差智商」（deviant IQ scores）的定義。亦即，個體的IQ分數，會和個體所屬的常模（例如:和相同年齡、國家的人們）相比較。這個常模的IQ分數的平均值為100分，標準差為15分。即68.2%的人的智商在85-115之間、95.4%的人的智商在70-130之間、99.6%的人的智商在55-145之間。

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現代人平均智商在逐漸增加，被稱為弗林效應，但不了解其原因是智力的實際增長還是測量的誤差；而最新的研究表明，智商有可能不單是與遺傳因素有關，例如智商降低或和精神分裂症風險基因直接相關，還與生活環境有關。即智商的高低可能與遺傳因素和生活環境有關，飲食缺乏碘則會造成兒童智商下降約12點，許多第三世界國家在消除缺碘和缺微量元素的環境後，民眾智商會急劇增加。

計算公式

「比率智商（ratio IQ scores）」計算公式： ${\text{IQ}}=100\times {\frac {\text{MA}}{\text{CA}}}$ ，

IQ = 智商；

MA = 心智年齡；

CA = 生理年齡。

如果MA比CA大，就即是IQ比正常高，相反MA比CA小，就即是IQ比正常低。

歷史

測量智能而且予以量化的想法源自於十九世紀的英國人高爾頓（Francis Galton, 1822-1911），但是這位優生學之父卻找錯方向，他試圖藉由測量人的體能和感官靈敏程度來得出智力，卻終究徒勞無功。其後，另闢新徑，建立智力測驗原型的是法國人阿爾弗雷德·比奈 (Alfred Binet)、維克多·亨利 (Victor Henri) 和西奧多·西蒙 ( Théodore Simon ) 一起發表專注於語言能力的比奈-西蒙智力測驗量表。他的研究長期被冷落，直到二十世紀初，因為實施國民義務教育政策，需要區分正常學童和智能不足的學童，他的研究才找到用途。

現代測試

知名的智商測試包括瑞文氏標準推理測驗、韋克斯勒成人智力量表、韋克斯勒兒童智力量表、斯坦福-比奈智力量表、伍德考克-約翰遜認知能力測驗（英語：Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities）和考夫曼兒童智力測驗（英語：Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children）。

智商測試一種順序量表（英語：Ordinal scale）。^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]智商測試並不是百分數，即意味著智商50的人的並不是有智商100的人的一半。

智商測試與成績測試之間的相關性約是0.7。^[5]

效度

不同智商測試得到的結果不同，同時其結果並不一定準確，現代智商測試的測量標準誤約是三點，即真實智商一般在測量所得值上下各三點的範圍內浮動。也有人認為測量結果有95%的幾率在四到五點測量標準誤下浮動。臨床心理學家認為這已足夠對多數臨床目標產生效力。^[6]^[7]

智力與年齡

在整個兒童期，智力可能都是不斷變化的。^[8]但是這之間也有一定的關係。以前一直認為成年之後智力就會開始有衰退趨勢，但是後來這個現象被認為與弗林效應及同輩效應有關。

在韋克斯勒智力量表開始研究成人不同群體的智商後，大量相關研究也開始湧現。現在的一般觀點是流動智力在成年初有輕微的衰退，而固定智力不變。同輩效應和練習效應（不斷練習同樣的智商測試）一定要嚴格控制，否則會影響測試結果。^[9]

流動智力和固定智力的峰值很難確定，代表性研究顯示流動智力在相對年輕時較高，長期來看智力到中年及稍後時期也都還很穩定。^[10]

組別差異

智商研究的許多有爭議問題都是關於智商在性別與種族間的變化的：

性別

大多數智商測試顯示男女之間並沒有太大區別。^[11]^[12] 一些常用的智力量表也沒有顯示出二者有所差異。^[13] 2002年國際智商研究協會（International Society for Intelligence Research）表示這實際上是因為測試設計者及教育系統刻意抹消了實際存在的男女差別以避免爭議，該協會指出實際上確實存在「真正的性別」差異。^[14]性別智商差異與種族智商差異一樣，涉及先天與後天的問題，需要考慮到環境因素。

種族

1996年，美國心理學協會資助的智商調查活動顯示不同種族之間的智力差距十分顯著，這涉及一個先天與後天的問題。包括艾倫·S·考夫曼^[15] 、南森·布羅迪^[16] 在內的心理學家和包括伯尼·德夫林在內的統計學家^[17] 認為這要考慮到遺傳問題，而另外一些學者，例如理查德·尼斯貝特認為環境因素可以解決一切的組別差異。^[18]

智商和情商的關係

一些人認為，智商和情商呈現負相關；然而有不同的研究指出，情商和智商呈現正相關。其中一項利用卡泰爾「文化公平」智力測驗（Cattell's "Culture Fair" intelligence test）以及大五人格特質的研究發現，情商和智商與人格特質呈現高度正相關，其多元迴歸分析的R值為.76；而各項數值中，和情商相關度最高的因子包括智商（標準化迴歸係數為.39）、親和性（標準化迴歸係數為0.54）以及經驗開放性（標準化迴歸係數為0.46）等，換句話說，一個人的智商和性格，尤其是智商、親和性和經驗開放性，都和情商呈現正相關^[19]；另一項研究也發現智商和情商呈現高度正相關，且標準化迴歸係數為.69^[20]，換句話說，智商可能是影響情商的最大因素。

參考文獻

[1]
Mussen, Paul Henry. Psychology: An Introduction. Lexington (MA): Heath. 1973: 363. ISBN 0-669-61382-7. The I.Q. is essentially a rank; there are no true "units" of intellectual ability.
[2]
Truch, Steve. The WISC-III Companion: A Guide to Interpretation and Educational Intervention. Austin (TX): Pro-Ed. 1993: 35. ISBN 0-89079-585-1. An IQ score is not an equal-interval score, as is evident in Table A.4 in the WISC-III manual.
[3]
Bartholomew, David J. Measuring Intelligence: Facts and Fallacies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2004: 50. ISBN 978-0-521-54478-8. 簡明摘要 (27 July 2010). When we come to quantities like IQ or g, as we are presently able to measure them, we shall see later that we have an even lower level of measurement—an ordinal level. This means that the numbers we assign to individuals can only be used to rank them—the number tells us where the individual comes in the rank order and nothing else.
[4]
Mackintosh, N. J. IQ and Human Intelligence. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1998: 30–31. ISBN 0-19-852367-X. In the jargon of psychological measurement theory, IQ is an ordinal scale, where we are simply rank-ordering people. . . . It is not even appropriate to claim that the 10-point difference between IQ scores of 110 and 100 is the same as the 10-point difference between IQs of 160 and 150
[5]
Jack A. Naglieri, Brienan T. Bornstein. Intelligence and Achievement: Just how Correlated are they?. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment: 244–260. [2018-04-02]. doi:10.1177/073428290302100302. （原始內容存檔於2017-11-07）.
[6]
Terman, Lewis Madison; Merrill, MaudeA. Measuring intelligence: A guide to the administration of the new revised Stanford-Binet tests of intelligence. Riverside textbooks in education. Boston (MA): Houghton Mifflin. 1937: 44.
[7]
Anastasi, Anne; Urbina, Susana. Psychological Testing Seventh. Upper Saddle River (NJ): Prentice Hall. 1997: 326–327 [2013-09-25]. ISBN 978-0-02-303085-7. （原始內容存檔於2015-09-24）. 簡明摘要 (28 July 2010).
[8]
Kaufman, Alan S. IQ Testing 101. New York: Springer Publishing. 2009: 220–222. ISBN 978-0-8261-0629-2. （原始內容使用|archiveurl=需要含有|url= (幫助)存檔於2013-09-28）. 簡明摘要 (10 August 2010).
[9]
Kaufman, Alan S. IQ Testing 101. New York: Springer Publishing. 2009. Chapter 8. ISBN 978-0-8261-0629-2. （原始內容使用|archiveurl=需要含有|url= (幫助)存檔於2013-09-28）. 簡明摘要 (10 August 2010). ^{[頁碼請求]}
[10]
Desjardins, Richard; Warnke, Arne Jonas. Ageing and Skills. OECD Education Working Papers. 2012 [2013-09-25]. ISSN 1993-9019. doi:10.1787/5k9csvw87ckh-en. （原始內容存檔於2013-09-25）.
[11]
Ulric Neisser, Gwyneth Boodoo, Thomas J., Jr. Bouchard, A. Wade Boykin, Nathan Brody, Stephen J. Ceci, Diane F. Halpern, John C. Loehlin, Robert Perloff, Robert J. Sternberg, Susana Urbina. Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns.. American Psychologist: 77–101. [2018-04-02]. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.51.2.77 （英語）.
[12]
Richard E. Nisbett, Joshua Aronson, Clancy Blair, William Dickens, James Flynn, Diane F. Halpern, Eric Turkheimer. Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments.. American Psychologist: 130–159. [2018-04-02]. doi:10.1037/a0026699 （英語）.
[13]
Jensen, A. (1998) The g Factor: The Science of Mental Ability (p. 531)
[14]
Jackson, D. N. (2002, December 5–7). Evaluating g in the SAT: Implications for the sex differences and interpretations of verbal and quantitative aptitude. Paper presented at the International Society for Intelligence Research, Nashville, TN."
[15]
Kaufman, Alan S. IQ Testing 101. New York: Springer Publishing. 2009: 173. ISBN 978-0-8261-0629-2. （原始內容使用|archiveurl=需要含有|url= (幫助)存檔於2013-09-28）. 簡明摘要 (10 August 2010).
[16]
Brody, Nathan. To g or Not to g—That Is the Question. Wilhelm, Oliver & Engle, Randall W. (Eds.) (編). Handbook of Understanding and Measuring Intelligence. Thousand Oaks (CA): SAGE Publications. 2005.
[17]
Bernie Devlin, Stephen E. Fienberg, Daniel P. Resnick & Kathryn Roeder (編). Intelligence, Genes, and Success: Scientists Respond to the Bell Curve. New York (NY): Springer Verlag. 1997. ISBN 0-387-98234-5.^{[頁碼請求]}
[18]
Nisbett, Richard E. Intelligence and How to Get It: Why Schools and Cultures Count. New York (NY): W. W. Norton. 2009 [2013-09-26]. ISBN 978-0-393-06505-3. （原始內容存檔於2012-03-14）. 簡明摘要 (28 June 2010).^{[頁碼請求]}
[19]
Fiori M, Antonakis J. The ability model of emotional intelligence: Searching for valid measures. Personality and Individual Differences (Submitted manuscript). 2011, 50 (3): 329–334. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.10.010.
[20]
Antonakis J, Dietz J. Looking for Validity or Testing It? The Perils of Stepwise Regression, Extreme-Scores Analysis, Heteroscedasticity, and Measurement Error. Personality and Individual Differences (Submitted manuscript). 2011, 50 (3): 409–415. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.014.

外部連結

International IQ testing association(國際智商測試協會) （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）

[1] [1]
Mussen, Paul Henry. Psychology: An Introduction. Lexington (MA): Heath. 1973: 363. ISBN 0-669-61382-7. The I.Q. is essentially a rank; there are no true "units" of intellectual ability.

[2] [2]
Truch, Steve. The WISC-III Companion: A Guide to Interpretation and Educational Intervention. Austin (TX): Pro-Ed. 1993: 35. ISBN 0-89079-585-1. An IQ score is not an equal-interval score, as is evident in Table A.4 in the WISC-III manual.

[3] [3]
Bartholomew, David J. Measuring Intelligence: Facts and Fallacies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2004: 50. ISBN 978-0-521-54478-8. 簡明摘要 (27 July 2010). When we come to quantities like IQ or g, as we are presently able to measure them, we shall see later that we have an even lower level of measurement—an ordinal level. This means that the numbers we assign to individuals can only be used to rank them—the number tells us where the individual comes in the rank order and nothing else.

[4] [4]
Mackintosh, N. J. IQ and Human Intelligence. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1998: 30–31. ISBN 0-19-852367-X. In the jargon of psychological measurement theory, IQ is an ordinal scale, where we are simply rank-ordering people. . . . It is not even appropriate to claim that the 10-point difference between IQ scores of 110 and 100 is the same as the 10-point difference between IQs of 160 and 150

[5] [5]
Jack A. Naglieri, Brienan T. Bornstein. Intelligence and Achievement: Just how Correlated are they?. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment: 244–260. [2018-04-02]. doi:10.1177/073428290302100302. （原始內容存檔於2017-11-07）.

[6] [6]
Terman, Lewis Madison; Merrill, MaudeA. Measuring intelligence: A guide to the administration of the new revised Stanford-Binet tests of intelligence. Riverside textbooks in education. Boston (MA): Houghton Mifflin. 1937: 44.

[7] [7]
Anastasi, Anne; Urbina, Susana. Psychological Testing Seventh. Upper Saddle River (NJ): Prentice Hall. 1997: 326–327 [2013-09-25]. ISBN 978-0-02-303085-7. （原始內容存檔於2015-09-24）. 簡明摘要 (28 July 2010).

[8] [8]
Kaufman, Alan S. IQ Testing 101. New York: Springer Publishing. 2009: 220–222. ISBN 978-0-8261-0629-2. （原始內容使用|archiveurl=需要含有|url= (幫助)存檔於2013-09-28）. 簡明摘要 (10 August 2010).

[9] [9]
Kaufman, Alan S. IQ Testing 101. New York: Springer Publishing. 2009. Chapter 8. ISBN 978-0-8261-0629-2. （原始內容使用|archiveurl=需要含有|url= (幫助)存檔於2013-09-28）. 簡明摘要 (10 August 2010). ^{[頁碼請求]}

[DesjardinsWarnke2012-10] [10]
Desjardins, Richard; Warnke, Arne Jonas. Ageing and Skills. OECD Education Working Papers. 2012 [2013-09-25]. ISSN 1993-9019. doi:10.1787/5k9csvw87ckh-en. （原始內容存檔於2013-09-25）.

[lrainc.com-11] [11]
Ulric Neisser, Gwyneth Boodoo, Thomas J., Jr. Bouchard, A. Wade Boykin, Nathan Brody, Stephen J. Ceci, Diane F. Halpern, John C. Loehlin, Robert Perloff, Robert J. Sternberg, Susana Urbina. Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns.. American Psychologist: 77–101. [2018-04-02]. doi:10.1037/0003-066x.51.2.77 （英語）.

[apa-12] [12]
Richard E. Nisbett, Joshua Aronson, Clancy Blair, William Dickens, James Flynn, Diane F. Halpern, Eric Turkheimer. Intelligence: New findings and theoretical developments.. American Psychologist: 130–159. [2018-04-02]. doi:10.1037/a0026699 （英語）.

[13] [13]
Jensen, A. (1998) The g Factor: The Science of Mental Ability (p. 531)

[14] [14]
Jackson, D. N. (2002, December 5–7). Evaluating g in the SAT: Implications for the sex differences and interpretations of verbal and quantitative aptitude. Paper presented at the International Society for Intelligence Research, Nashville, TN."

[15] [15]
Kaufman, Alan S. IQ Testing 101. New York: Springer Publishing. 2009: 173. ISBN 978-0-8261-0629-2. （原始內容使用|archiveurl=需要含有|url= (幫助)存檔於2013-09-28）. 簡明摘要 (10 August 2010).

[16] [16]
Brody, Nathan. To g or Not to g—That Is the Question. Wilhelm, Oliver & Engle, Randall W. (Eds.) (編). Handbook of Understanding and Measuring Intelligence. Thousand Oaks (CA): SAGE Publications. 2005.

[17] [17]
Bernie Devlin, Stephen E. Fienberg, Daniel P. Resnick & Kathryn Roeder (編). Intelligence, Genes, and Success: Scientists Respond to the Bell Curve. New York (NY): Springer Verlag. 1997. ISBN 0-387-98234-5.^{[頁碼請求]}

[18] [18]
Nisbett, Richard E. Intelligence and How to Get It: Why Schools and Cultures Count. New York (NY): W. W. Norton. 2009 [2013-09-26]. ISBN 978-0-393-06505-3. （原始內容存檔於2012-03-14）. 簡明摘要 (28 June 2010).^{[頁碼請求]}

[19] [19]
Fiori M, Antonakis J. The ability model of emotional intelligence: Searching for valid measures. Personality and Individual Differences (Submitted manuscript). 2011, 50 (3): 329–334. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.10.010.

[20] [20]
Antonakis J, Dietz J. Looking for Validity or Testing It? The Perils of Stepwise Regression, Extreme-Scores Analysis, Heteroscedasticity, and Measurement Error. Personality and Individual Differences (Submitted manuscript). 2011, 50 (3): 409–415. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.09.014.

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