苏格兰宗教改革

苏格兰宗教改革（英语：Scottish Reformation）是苏格兰王国在1560年正式与罗马天主教会教皇决裂而产生的一系列改革，为欧洲宗教改革的一部分。苏格兰宗教改革以加尔文主义重塑了苏格兰的教会，使得苏格兰长老会成为了苏格兰国教。^[1]

苏格兰原由教皇支持者法兰西王国的玛丽·德·吉斯统治，1560年苏格兰改革议会形成，该议会拒绝承认教皇的权威，禁止教众举行弥撒，并且批准了苏格兰人信条，因此这项改革也被看做是反抗法兰西霸权的运动。

中世纪时的教会

苏格兰在6世纪接受基督教^[2]。依照教皇雷定三世的教皇诏书《Cum universi》（1192），整个苏格兰统一为一个主教区，即“Ecclesia Scoticana”，因为被称作“圣座特殊的女儿”^[3]，享有相当的独立权，之后的天主教会大分裂(1378-1417年)使得苏格兰王室得以掌握更大的权力。1472年圣安德鲁斯成为第一个苏格兰大主教区，1492年格拉斯哥紧随其后^[3]，16世纪中期，八成教会土地由当地贵族占用^[4]，苏格兰君主也不断将自己人安插到教会中，如詹姆斯四世的儿子亚历山大在11岁时就成为圣安德鲁斯大主教。教皇则在14世纪初就开始提拔底层僧侣，即使苏格兰贵族常抱怨新的僧侣缺乏教养，但并未能阻止此趋势^[5]。

历史学家发现这一时代的修道院修士数量很少，15世纪时贵族也开始减少对教会的捐助^[6]。但该世纪末托钵修士开始大量出现在苏格兰的各个皇家自治镇中，1467年方济会在苏格兰成立教省^[7]。苏格兰修士数量也开始增加。

外界影响

15世纪早期被视为异端的罗拉德派传入苏格兰，作为约翰·威克里夫及杨·胡斯的信徒，他们开始宣传宗教改革。虽然一些人被以火刑处死，人民也对其学说并不很感兴趣，罗拉德派也没有被完全根除。^[8]

自15世纪开始，文艺复兴宣扬的人文主义开始对宗教产生影响，为苏格兰教会带来一股新风。马丁·路德的学说在苏格兰也有相当的影响力，新教徒数量开始增加，苏格兰议会不得不在1525年开始考虑禁止路德宗书籍，并对路德宗进行全面镇压。^[9]

1528年，詹姆斯五世即位。不像当时的英格兰君主亨利八世，詹姆斯五世较为保守，不打算进行任何形式的宗教改革^[10]。于是倡导路德学说的苏格兰贵族帕特里克·汉密尔顿在当年成为了第一个新教徒殉道者，在圣安德鲁斯被当作异端以火刑烧死^[11]。之后在30和40年代又有一些新教徒被烧死^[12]。

玛丽一世在1542年即位，尚为幼儿的她得到枢机主教大卫·比顿和其母玛丽·德·吉斯的支持，形成苏格兰政治势力中不支持宗教改革的法国派的核心。^[13] 但以摄政詹姆斯·汉密尔顿为首的另一派人士却持反对意见，^[14] 他们想要通过把玛丽嫁给亨利八世的儿子爱德华来进行进一步改革。但最终汉密尔顿和比顿和解，前者也加入了比顿的阵营，这激怒了亨利八世，最终二国之间爆发战争。^[15] 英格兰人摧毁了苏格兰东南部的大片城镇，这起事件史称“粗暴求婚”。^[15]

1546年牧师乔治·威沙特被比顿以火刑处死，一些法夫地区的地主是这名牧师的支持者，因此派出一批新教徒潜入圣安德鲁斯城堡暗杀了比顿。他们随后就被包围，史称圣安德鲁斯之围，一年后被击溃，其中幸存者如约翰·诺克斯变成了奴隶。^[16]

1547年英格兰护国公萨默塞特公爵爱德华重启战端，再次攻占了苏格兰东南部低地，在此宣扬新教。^[17] 苏格兰人将玛丽许给法兰西皇太子、后来的弗朗索瓦二世以换取法国的武力支持，而玛丽也在1548年前往法国，使得亨利八世当时的逼婚计划完全失算。^[18]

苏格兰内乱

1559年5月1日由约翰·诺克斯领导的暴徒洗劫了伯斯的一些教会财产，当时玛丽一世之母玛丽·德·吉斯在任为摄政，她进军伯斯，但遭到西来的叛军夹击，最终撤军妥协。^[19] 随后法军接连失利，爱丁堡也在七月陷落，玛丽退居邓巴城堡。^[20]^[21] 后来法军一度得势，^[22] 但因为玛丽·德·吉斯在1560年6月逝世，英法达成爱丁堡条约，成立苏格兰改革议会来解决争端，实际上这使得新教徒占据了优势。

苏格兰议会1560年7月10日在爱丁堡集会，参加者包括十四名伯爵、六名主教、十九名其他贵族、二十一名修道院院长和二十二名皇家自治镇代表，形成所谓的苏格兰改革议会（Scottish Reformation Parliament）。在8月17日他们通过了三项法案，正式支持新教，圣事缩减到的洗礼和圣餐两项，而弥撒和教皇管辖权都被废除。

但教会的财产本身并没有受到多大影响，一些保守人士还保有著大量土地。这些遗留问题一直到1689年才得到解决。^[23] 此外玛丽一世也拒绝承认议会法案的有效性，这一问题则在1567年詹姆斯六世即位时得到解决，自此苏格兰也大致上变成了一个新教国家。

不像早期较为温和的路德宗信徒，诺克斯和其追随者是更严格的加尔文派信仰者。^[24] 他们通过了苏格兰人信条，该信条取消了罗马教廷的仪式及主教区、发起破坏圣像运动。这个信条在1644年被更苛刻的威斯敏斯特信条取代。^[25] 1560年教会会议（Kirk Session）开始举行，但区会（Presbytery）直到1580年才有。^[26]

改革之后的苏格兰议会像英格兰一样，无条件支持教会统一法令。他们以苏格兰长老会为唯一的正统。从英格兰宗教迫害中逃出的一些新教徒将爱德华六世的第二版公祷书（1552年）带到苏格兰，诺克斯本来也支持此这个宗教宪法，然而后来因受加尔文的影响而自创了《苏格兰教会公共秩序书》（Book of Common Order），后者在1562年被苏格兰长老会批准成为正式的教会祈祷书，它到1643年才被《威斯敏斯特公共敬拜指南》（Westminster Directory）取代。^[27]

苏格兰长老会在1560年通过《第一纪律书》（First Book of Discipline）来规定教会的运作方法，用来实施改革后教会的政策。教会打算将牧师派驻苏格兰各地来传播新的教义，^[28] 但当时人手缺乏，因此设有监督者和其他一些职位来统一管理一个教区的教育情况。^[29] 不过实际上这些举措因为教会收入过低都难以见效。^[30] 原因是1562年的一项法令使得新教会无法继承旧教会的大部分财产，改革后教会收入只有之前的六分之一，而大部分利益都被贵族纳入囊中。^[31] 1567年时整个苏格兰只有257名牧师，还不足当时全部1,067所教堂的数量。^[32] 而1590年分为50个区会的苏格兰也只在每个区内有20名牧师。^[26]

艺术

以前苏格兰教会赞助的艺术品因改革的圣像破坏运动而几乎完全消失，例如中世纪的彩色玻璃、宗教雕塑和绘画等都几乎全部被毁。其中现在仅存的彩色玻璃位于爱丁堡牛门的抹大拉教堂（Magdalen Chapel），创作年代是改革发生不久前的1544年，这实际也是该教堂建成的时间。^[33]

因为加尔文派教徒不喜在做礼拜的地方进行装饰，因此许多中世纪教堂的装饰物都被强行抹去^[34]。新建的一些教堂也都遵循其律^[35]。阿伯丁的国王学院和邓布兰的邓布兰大教堂存有少见的木刻艺术^[36]。此外，因为许多当代艺术家受到改革之后教会的制约，不得不转行，使得改革后一段时间内苏格兰的艺术水平显著下降^[37]^[38]。

音乐

宗教改革对苏格兰的音乐也造成了重大影响，从前的教堂唱诗班和歌唱学校被解散，音乐书籍和乐谱被毁，教堂里的风琴也被拆除^[39]。加尔文派教徒对宗教音乐的选择十分苛刻，想要把《圣经》和《诗篇》区分开来；为此，1564年苏格兰长老会大会委托当时的音乐家创作了《苏格兰韵律诗篇》（Scottish Psalter）。^[40] ^[41]

詹姆斯六世在1579年恢复唱诗班和歌唱学校传统，当年创办四所歌唱学校，1633年时数量上升到25所^[42]。复调在1625年被纳入苏格兰的诗篇唱法中，^[40] 但在1638年国民誓约后又被废除。^[43]

民间

苏格兰的清教徒将《圣经》当做绝对真理，将其当做道德权威^[44]，民间则多用其来占卜^[45]。1611年，苏格兰教会以《钦定版圣经》取代了旧的《日内瓦圣经》和其他版本，但直到17世纪时日内瓦圣经仍在使用^[46]。改革之后教会开始拥有宗教审判权，且禁止了一些民间习俗，其中连篝火、化妆和跳舞等都被列为当禁之事物。^[47]

中世纪末期苏格兰就有控诉巫术的例子，但巫术仍在民间流行。1563年巫术法令巫术成为彻底的异端，凡从事此业或咨询女巫者均以斩首论处^[48]。最早的大规模女巫审判出现在16世纪末，1590年左右发生的北贝里克郡女巫审判连国王詹姆斯六世都被牵连入内^[49]。宗教改革后的百年间有数千人因被控使用巫术而受审，数量比英格兰还多。其中有75%都是女性，有超过1,500人遭处决^[50]。

引用

[1]
Article 1, of the Articles Declaratory of the Constitution of the Church of Scotland 1921 states 'The Church of Scotland adheres to the Scottish Reformation'.
[2]
R. A. Fletcher, The Barbarian Conversion: From Paganism to Christianity (University of California Press, 1999), ISBN 0520218590, pp. 231-3.
[3]
P. J. Bawcutt & J. H. Williams, A Companion to Medieval Scottish Poetry (Woodbridge: Brewer, 2006), ISBN 1843840960, pp. 26-9.
[4]
A. Macquarrie, Medieval Scotland: Kinship and Nation (Thrupp: Sutton, 2004), ISBN 0-7509-2977-4, pp. 109-117.
[5]
Andrew D. M. Barrell, Medieval Scotland (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), ISBN 052158602X, pp. 244-5.
[6]
Andrew D. M. Barrell, Medieval Scotland (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), ISBN 052158602X, p. 246.
[7]
J. Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), ISBN 0748602763, pp. 76-87.
[8]
Andrew D. M. Barrell, Medieval Scotland (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), ISBN 052158602X, p. 257.
[9]
J. Kirk Dictionary of Scottish Church History and Theology Wright, D. F. et al. (eds) Edinburgh 1993 p. 694.
[10]
R. Mason, "Renaissance and Reformation: the sixteenth century", in J. Wormald, ed., Scotland: A History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), ISBN 0-19-162243-5, p. 102.
[11]
J. E. A. Dawson, Scotland Re-Formed, 1488–1587 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), ISBN 0-7486-1455-9, pp. 164-6.
[12]
Mackie, J. D., History of Scotland, Penguin, 1964, p. 151.
[13]
J. Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), ISBN 0-7486-0276-3, p. 100.
[14]
J. E. A. Dawson, Scotland Re-Formed, 1488–1587 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), ISBN 0-7486-1455-9, p. 159.
[15]
A. Grant and K. J. Stringer, Uniting the Kingdom?: the Making of British History (Psychology Press, 1995), ISBN 3-03910-948-0, pp. 115–6.
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M. F. Graham, "Scotland", in A. Pettegree, The Reformation World (London: Routledge, 2000), ISBN 0-415-16357-9, p. 414.
[17]
J. Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), ISBN 0-7486-0276-3, pp. 102–4.
[18]
J. D. Mackie, A History of Scotland (Penguin 1964), p. 144.
[19]
Calendar State Papers Scotland, vol. 1 (1898), 212–3, 215, James Croft to English council, 19 & 22 May & 5 June 1559.
[20]
Knox, John, Works: History of the Reformation, vol. 1 (1846), pp. 350–355 & footnotes.
[21]
Calendar State Papers Scotland, vol. 1 (1898), 221, Croft to Cecil, 3 July 1559.
[22]
Calendar State Papers Scotland, vol. 1 (1898), 266–7, Randolph to Sadler & Croft, 11 November 1559.
[23]
Burleigh, J. H. S., A Church History of Scotland, p. 153.
[24]
Burleigh, J. H. S., A Church History of Scotland p. 154.
[25]
Scots Confession chapter 18.
[26]
Peter G. B. McNeill and Hector L. MacQueen, eds., Atlas of Scottish History to 1707 (Edinburgh, 1996), pp. 390–91.
[27]
On this section see Burleigh, J. H. S., A Church History of Scotland pp. 160–63.
[28]
First Book of Discipline chapt. 4.
[29]
First Book of Discipline chapt. 5.
[30]
Knox claimed that the book was commissioned by Parliament itself, but that they declined to enact it. Knox, K. History of the Reformation (ed. W.C Dickinson 1949), i, 343.
[31]
Established Church of Scotland. 天主教百科全书. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.
[32]
Mackie, J. D., A History of Scotland, Penguin, London 1964 p. 160.
[33]
T. W. West, Discovering Scottish Architecture (Botley: Osprey, 1985), ISBN 0-85263-748-9, p. 55.
[34]
Royal Institute of British Architects, Kirks throughout the ages, architecture.com, [13 January 2010], （原始内容存档于2007年10月14日）
[35]
A. Spicer, "Architecture", in A. Pettegree, ed., The Reformation World (London: Routledge, 2000), ISBN 0-415-16357-9, p. 517.
[36]
H. Scott, ed., Scotland: A Concise Cultural History (Mainstream, 1993), ISBN 1-85158-581-8, p. 208.
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J. E. A. Dawson, Scotland Re-Formed, 1488–1587 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), ISBN 0-7486-1455-9, p. 131.
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N. Prior, Museums and Modernity: Art Galleries and the Making of Modern Culture (Berg, 2002), ISBN 1-85973-508-8, p. 102.
[39]
A. Thomas, "The Renaissance", in T. M. Devine and J. Wormald, The Oxford Handbook of Modern Scottish History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), ISBN 0-19-162433-0, pp. 198–9.
[40]
J. Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), ISBN 0-7486-0276-3, pp. 187–90.
[41]
A. Thomas, "The Renaissance", in T. M. Devine and J. Wormald, The Oxford Handbook of Modern Scottish History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), ISBN 0-19-162433-0, p. 198.
[42]
G. Munro, "'Sang schools' and 'music schools': music education in Scotland 1560–1650", in S. F. Weiss, R. E. Murray, Jr., and C. J. Cyrus, Music Education in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance Music Education in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance (Indiana University Press, 2010), ISBN 0-253-00455-1, p. 67.
[43]
J. R. Baxter, "Music, ecclesiastical", in M. Lynch, ed., The Oxford Companion to Scottish History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), ISBN 0-19-211696-7, pp. 431–2.
[44]
G. D. Henderson, Religious Life in Seventeenth-Century Scotland (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), ISBN 0-521-24877-9, pp. 1–4.
[45]
G. D. Henderson, Religious Life in Seventeenth-Century Scotland (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), ISBN 0-521-24877-9, p. 12.
[46]
J. Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), ISBN 0-7486-0276-3, pp. 192–3.
[47]
R. A. Houston, I. D. Whyte "Introduction" in R. A. Houston, I. D. Whyte, eds, Scottish Society, 1500–1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), ISBN 0-521-89167-1, p. 34.
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K. A. Edwards, "Witchcraft in Tudor and Stuart Scotland", in K. Cartwright, A Companion to Tudor Literature Blackwell Companions to Literature and Culture (Oxford: John Wiley & Sons, 2010), ISBN 1-4051-5477-2, p. 32.
[49]
J. Keay and J. Keay, Collins Encyclopaedia of Scotland (London: Harper Collins, 1994), ISBN 0-00-255082-2, p. 556.
[50]
S. J. Brown, "Religion and society to c. 1900", T. M. Devine and J. Wormald, eds, The Oxford Handbook of Modern Scottish History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), ISBN 0-19-956369-1, p. 81.

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Kirk, J., Patterns of Reform T&T Clark, Edinburgh, 1989 ISBN 0-567-09505-3.
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Lamont, Stewart. The Swordbearer: John Knox and the European Reformation Hodder and Stoughton, London 1991
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MacDonald, Ian R. The Jacobean Kirk, 1567–1625: Sovereignty, Liturgy and Polity (Aldershot, 1998),
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BBC Scottish History （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）

[1] [1]
Article 1, of the Articles Declaratory of the Constitution of the Church of Scotland 1921 states 'The Church of Scotland adheres to the Scottish Reformation'.

[2] [2]
R. A. Fletcher, The Barbarian Conversion: From Paganism to Christianity (University of California Press, 1999), ISBN 0520218590, pp. 231-3.

[Bawcutt&Williams2006pp26-9-3] [3]
P. J. Bawcutt & J. H. Williams, A Companion to Medieval Scottish Poetry (Woodbridge: Brewer, 2006), ISBN 1843840960, pp. 26-9.

[Macquarrie2004pp109-117-4] [4]
A. Macquarrie, Medieval Scotland: Kinship and Nation (Thrupp: Sutton, 2004), ISBN 0-7509-2977-4, pp. 109-117.

[Barrell2000pp244-5-5] [5]
Andrew D. M. Barrell, Medieval Scotland (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), ISBN 052158602X, pp. 244-5.

[Barrell2000p246-6] [6]
Andrew D. M. Barrell, Medieval Scotland (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), ISBN 052158602X, p. 246.

[Wormald1991pp75-87-7] [7]
J. Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), ISBN 0748602763, pp. 76-87.

[Barrell2000p2547-8] [8]
Andrew D. M. Barrell, Medieval Scotland (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), ISBN 052158602X, p. 257.

[9] [9]
J. Kirk Dictionary of Scottish Church History and Theology Wright, D. F. et al. (eds) Edinburgh 1993 p. 694.

[10] [10]
R. Mason, "Renaissance and Reformation: the sixteenth century", in J. Wormald, ed., Scotland: A History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), ISBN 0-19-162243-5, p. 102.

[11] [11]
J. E. A. Dawson, Scotland Re-Formed, 1488–1587 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), ISBN 0-7486-1455-9, pp. 164-6.

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First Book of Discipline chapt. 5.

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Knox claimed that the book was commissioned by Parliament itself, but that they declined to enact it. Knox, K. History of the Reformation (ed. W.C Dickinson 1949), i, 343.

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Established Church of Scotland. 天主教百科全书. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.

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Mackie, J. D., A History of Scotland, Penguin, London 1964 p. 160.

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T. W. West, Discovering Scottish Architecture (Botley: Osprey, 1985), ISBN 0-85263-748-9, p. 55.

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A. Spicer, "Architecture", in A. Pettegree, ed., The Reformation World (London: Routledge, 2000), ISBN 0-415-16357-9, p. 517.

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H. Scott, ed., Scotland: A Concise Cultural History (Mainstream, 1993), ISBN 1-85158-581-8, p. 208.

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J. E. A. Dawson, Scotland Re-Formed, 1488–1587 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007), ISBN 0-7486-1455-9, p. 131.

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N. Prior, Museums and Modernity: Art Galleries and the Making of Modern Culture (Berg, 2002), ISBN 1-85973-508-8, p. 102.

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A. Thomas, "The Renaissance", in T. M. Devine and J. Wormald, The Oxford Handbook of Modern Scottish History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), ISBN 0-19-162433-0, pp. 198–9.

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J. Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), ISBN 0-7486-0276-3, pp. 187–90.

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A. Thomas, "The Renaissance", in T. M. Devine and J. Wormald, The Oxford Handbook of Modern Scottish History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), ISBN 0-19-162433-0, p. 198.

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G. Munro, "'Sang schools' and 'music schools': music education in Scotland 1560–1650", in S. F. Weiss, R. E. Murray, Jr., and C. J. Cyrus, Music Education in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance Music Education in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance (Indiana University Press, 2010), ISBN 0-253-00455-1, p. 67.

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J. R. Baxter, "Music, ecclesiastical", in M. Lynch, ed., The Oxford Companion to Scottish History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), ISBN 0-19-211696-7, pp. 431–2.

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G. D. Henderson, Religious Life in Seventeenth-Century Scotland (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), ISBN 0-521-24877-9, pp. 1–4.

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G. D. Henderson, Religious Life in Seventeenth-Century Scotland (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), ISBN 0-521-24877-9, p. 12.

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J. Wormald, Court, Kirk, and Community: Scotland, 1470–1625 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), ISBN 0-7486-0276-3, pp. 192–3.

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