山脉形成

山脉形成（英语：mountain formation）是指造山运动的地质过程。这些过程与大规模的地壳板块运动有关^[1]。褶皱、断层、火山活动、火成岩侵入和变质作用都可能是造山运动的一部分^[2]。山脉的形成不一定与在其内部地质构造有关 ^[3]。

根据地貌景观的特征来研究地质构造的称为构造地貌学，而对年轻的地质构造或正在进行的构造运动之研究称为新构造学^[4]。地槽理论从 18 世纪后期到 1960 年代被用来解释许多造山运动。此理论后被板块构造取代^[5]。

山脉类型

山脉主要有五种类型：火山型、褶皱型、高原型、断块型和圆顶型。早于板块构造之前，山脉有更详细的局部分类^[8]。

火山山脉

板块构造的运动会在沿著板块边界产生火山，火山爆发并形成山脉。火山弧系统是在俯冲带附近形成的一系列火山，在俯冲带附近，下沉的海洋板块将地壳与水俯冲入地幔而被融化^[9]。

大多数火山在环绕太平洋的带（太平洋火环），另一个从地中海延伸到亚洲，加入到印度尼西亚群岛的太平洋带。最重要的火山类型是复合锥体或成层火山（例如维苏威火山、乞力马扎罗山和富士山）和盾状火山（如夏威夷的莫纳罗亚火山，是一个热点火山）^[10]^[11]。

盾状火山有一个平缓倾斜的锥体，是由于喷出的玄武岩属低粘度。例如Mauna Loa，其坡度为 4°-6°。（斜率和粘度之间的关系请看休止角 ^[12]。复合锥体火山的坡度较陡峭的上升锥（33°-40°）^[13]，这是由于喷发的物质具较高的粘度，因此喷发比盾状火山猛烈，也不频繁。例如沙斯塔山、胡德山和雷尼尔山^[14]。 Vitosha 是保加利亚首都索非亚旁边的圆顶山，也是由火山活动形成的。

褶皱山脉

当板块碰撞或俯冲时，板块往往会弯曲和折叠，形成山脉。大多数主要的大陆山脉都与逆冲断层和褶皱及造山运动有关。例如巴尔干山脉、汝拉山脉和扎格罗斯山脉^[15]。

断块山脉

当断块升高或倾斜时，可能会形成块状山脉^[17]。高的断块被为地垒，而槽被为地堑。当张力大到足以导致断块分开时，就会导致中心断块相对于其侧翼断块下降。

内华达山脉是由地壳分层剥离形成了一个长 650 公里、宽 80 公里的地块，该地块由许多向西倾斜的单独断块组成，其向东的滑坡非常陡，形成了美国大陆最高的山前陡坡。^[18]^[19].

位于东南欧的保加利亚，其境内的里拉 - 罗多彼山地块，有明显的地垒，包括Belasitsa 线性地垒、里拉山（拱形圆顶形地垒）和皮林山地垒。后者是一个由巨大背斜形成的地垒，位于Struma 和 Mesta 的地堑山谷之间^[20]^[21]^[22]。

抬升的被动大陆边缘

抬升的被动大陆边缘的形成，目前没有被广泛接受的地球物理模型来解释。例如斯堪的纳维亚山脉、格陵兰东部、巴西高地或澳大利亚的大分水岭^[23].^[24]。这些抬升的大陆边缘很可能具有相同的抬昇机制。可能与地球岩石圈中的远场应力有关。根据这种观点，升高的被动大陆边缘可以比作大的岩石圈，受水平压缩作用在大陆边缘过渡带引起的背斜褶皱^[25]^[26]。

模型

热点火山

热点由地幔柱的岩浆形成的。虽然最初归因于俯冲洋壳的融化，但最近的证据否定此学说^[27]。

断块

山脉的形成多与断层有关。断层运动实际上可以通过分析来预测，例如，使用流变学和地壳均衡来预测凸起块的高度和块之间的中间裂谷的宽度。早期预测裂缝和断层运动的弯板模型已经演变成今天的运动和弯曲模型^[28]^[29]。

参考文献

[1]
Steven M. Stanley (2004). "Mountain building". Earth system history (2nd ed.). Macmillan. p. 207. ISBN 978-0-7167-3907-4.
[2]
Robert J. Twiss; Eldridge M. Moores (1992). "Plate tectonic models of orogenic core zones". Structural Geology (2nd ed.). Macmillan. p. 493. ISBN 978-0-7167-2252-6.
[3]
Ollier, Cliff; Pain, Colin (2000). The Origin of Mountains. Routledge. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-415-19890-5.
[4]
Kurt Stüwe (2007). "§4.5 Geomorphology". Geodynamics of the lithosphere: an introduction (2nd ed.). Springer. p. 178. ISBN 978-3-540-71236-7.
[5]
"Geosynclinal Theory". publish.illinois.edu. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Retrieved March 8, 2018
[6]
NASA - Activity at Kliuchevskoi
[7]
Victor Schmidt; William Harbert (2003). Planet Earth and the New Geoscience (4th ed.). Kendall Hunt. pp. 46–47. ISBN 978-0-7872-9355-0.
[8]
Andrew Goudie (2004). Encyclopedia of geomorphology; Volume 2. Routledge. p. 701. ISBN 978-0-415-32738-1.
[9]
Stephen D Butz (2004). "Chapter 8: Plate tectonics". Science of Earth Systems. Thompson/Delmar Learning. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-7668-3391-3.
[10]
John Gerrard (1990). "Types of volcano". Mountain environments: an examination of the physical geography of mountains. MIT Press. p. 194. ISBN 978-0-262-07128-4
[11]
Robert Wayne Decker; Barbara Decker (2005). "Chapter 8: Hot spots". Volcanoes (4th ed.). Macmillan. p. 113 ff. ISBN 978-0-7167-8929-1
[12]
Arthur Holmes; Donald Duff (2004). Holmes Principles of Physical Geology (4th ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 209. ISBN 978-0-7487-4381-0.
[13]
Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Volume 39. American Society of Civil Engineers. 1898. p. 62.
[14]
James Shipman; Jerry D. Wilson; Aaron Todd (2007). "Minerals, rocks and volcanoes". An Introduction to Physical Science (12th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 650. ISBN 978-0-618-93596-3.
[15]
Michael P Searle (2007). "Diagnostic features and processes in the construction and evolution of Oman-, Zagros-, Himalayan-, Karakoram-, and Tibetan type orogenic belts". In Robert D Hatcher Jr.; MP Carlson; JH McBride & JR Martinez Catalán (eds.). 4-D framework of continental crust. Geological Society of America. p. 41 ff. ISBN 978-0-8137-1200-0.
[16]
Chris C. Park (2001). "Figure 6.11". The environment: principles and applications (2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 160. ISBN 978-0-415-21770-5
[17]
Scott Ryan (2006). "Figure 13-1". CliffsQuickReview Earth Science. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-78937-6.
[18]
John Gerrard (1990-04-12). Reference cited. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-262-07128-4
[19]
Lee, C.-T.; Yin, Q; Rudnick, RL; Chesley, JT; Jacobsen, SB (2000). "Osmium Isotopic Evidence for Mesozoic Removal of Lithospheric Mantle Beneath the Sierra Nevada, California" (PDF). Science. 289 (5486): 1912–6. Bibcode:2000Sci...289.1912L. doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1912. PMID 10988067. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-06-15
[20]
Мичев (Michev), Николай (Nikolay); Михайлов (Mihaylov), Цветко (Tsvetko); Вапцаров (Vaptsarov), Иван (Ivan); Кираджиев (Kiradzhiev), Светлин (Svetlin) (1980). Географски речник на България [Geographic Dictionary of Bulgaria] (in Bulgarian). Sofia: Наука и култура (Nauka i kultura). p. 368
[21]
Димитрова (Dimitrova), Людмила (Lyudmila) (2004). Национален парк "Пирин". План за управление [Pirin National Park. Management Plan] (in Bulgarian). и колектив. Sofia: Ministry of Environment and Water, Bulgarian Foundation "Biodiversity". p. 53
[22]
Дончев (Donchev), Дончо (Doncho); Каракашев (Karakashev), Христо (Hristo) (2004). Теми по физическа и социално-икономическа география на България [Topics on Physical and Social-Economic Geography of Bulgaria] (in Bulgarian). Sofia: Ciela. pp. 128–129. ISBN 954-649-717-7
[23]
Bonow, Johan M. (2009). "atlantens kustberg och högslätter – gamla eller unga?" (PDF). www.geografitorget.se (in Swedish). Geografilärarnas Riksförening
[24]
Green, Paul F.; Lidmar-Bergström, Karna; Japsen, Peter; Bonow, Johan M.; Chalmers, James A. (2013). "Stratigraphic landscape analysis, thermochronology and the episodic development of elevated, passive continental margins". Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland Bulletin. 30: 18. doi:10.34194/geusb.v30.4673
[25]
apsen, Peter; Chalmers, James A.; Green, Paul F.; Bonow, Johan M. (2012). "Elevated, passive continental margins: Not rift shoulders, but expressions of episodic, post-rift burial and exhumation". Global and Planetary Change. 90–91: 73–86. Bibcode:2012GPC....90...73J. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2011.05.004
[26]
Løseth and Hendriksen 2005
[27]
Y Niu & MJ O'Hara (2004). "Chapter 7: Mantle plumes are NOT from ancient oceanic crust". In Roger Hékinian; Peter Stoffers & Jean-Louis Cheminée (eds.). Oceanic hotspots: intraplate submarine magmatism and tectonism. Springer. p. 239 ff. ISBN 978-3-540-40859-8.
[28]
AB Watts (2001). "§7.2 Extensional tectonics and rifting". Isostasy and flexure of the lithosphere. Cambridge University Press. p. 295. ISBN 978-0-521-00600-2
[29]
GD Karner & NW Driscoll (1999). "Style, timing and distribution of tectonic deformation across the Exmouth Plateau, northwest Australia, determined from stratal architecture and quantitative basin modelling". In Conall Mac Niocaill & Paul Desmond Ryan (eds.). Continental tectonics. Geological society. p. 280. ISBN 978-1-86239-051-5

[”Steven”-1] [1]
Steven M. Stanley (2004). "Mountain building". Earth system history (2nd ed.). Macmillan. p. 207. ISBN 978-0-7167-3907-4.

[”Robert”-2] [2]
Robert J. Twiss; Eldridge M. Moores (1992). "Plate tectonic models of orogenic core zones". Structural Geology (2nd ed.). Macmillan. p. 493. ISBN 978-0-7167-2252-6.

[”Ollier”-3] [3]
Ollier, Cliff; Pain, Colin (2000). The Origin of Mountains. Routledge. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-415-19890-5.

[”Kurt”-4] [4]
Kurt Stüwe (2007). "§4.5 Geomorphology". Geodynamics of the lithosphere: an introduction (2nd ed.). Springer. p. 178. ISBN 978-3-540-71236-7.

[”Theory”-5] [5]
"Geosynclinal Theory". publish.illinois.edu. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Retrieved March 8, 2018

[”NASA”-6] [6]
NASA - Activity at Kliuchevskoi

[Victo”-7] [7]
Victor Schmidt; William Harbert (2003). Planet Earth and the New Geoscience (4th ed.). Kendall Hunt. pp. 46–47. ISBN 978-0-7872-9355-0.

[”Andrew”-8] [8]
Andrew Goudie (2004). Encyclopedia of geomorphology; Volume 2. Routledge. p. 701. ISBN 978-0-415-32738-1.

[”Stephen”-9] [9]
Stephen D Butz (2004). "Chapter 8: Plate tectonics". Science of Earth Systems. Thompson/Delmar Learning. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-7668-3391-3.

[”John”-10] [10]
John Gerrard (1990). "Types of volcano". Mountain environments: an examination of the physical geography of mountains. MIT Press. p. 194. ISBN 978-0-262-07128-4

[”Robert1”-11] [11]
Robert Wayne Decker; Barbara Decker (2005). "Chapter 8: Hot spots". Volcanoes (4th ed.). Macmillan. p. 113 ff. ISBN 978-0-7167-8929-1

[”Arthur”-12] [12]
Arthur Holmes; Donald Duff (2004). Holmes Principles of Physical Geology (4th ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 209. ISBN 978-0-7487-4381-0.

[”Tran”-13] [13]
Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Volume 39. American Society of Civil Engineers. 1898. p. 62.

[”James”-14] [14]
James Shipman; Jerry D. Wilson; Aaron Todd (2007). "Minerals, rocks and volcanoes". An Introduction to Physical Science (12th ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 650. ISBN 978-0-618-93596-3.

[”Mich”-15] [15]
Michael P Searle (2007). "Diagnostic features and processes in the construction and evolution of Oman-, Zagros-, Himalayan-, Karakoram-, and Tibetan type orogenic belts". In Robert D Hatcher Jr.; MP Carlson; JH McBride & JR Martinez Catalán (eds.). 4-D framework of continental crust. Geological Society of America. p. 41 ff. ISBN 978-0-8137-1200-0.

[”Chris”-16] [16]
Chris C. Park (2001). "Figure 6.11". The environment: principles and applications (2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 160. ISBN 978-0-415-21770-5

[”Scott”-17] [17]
Scott Ryan (2006). "Figure 13-1". CliffsQuickReview Earth Science. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-78937-6.

[”John1”-18] [18]
John Gerrard (1990-04-12). Reference cited. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-262-07128-4

[”Lee”-19] [19]
Lee, C.-T.; Yin, Q; Rudnick, RL; Chesley, JT; Jacobsen, SB (2000). "Osmium Isotopic Evidence for Mesozoic Removal of Lithospheric Mantle Beneath the Sierra Nevada, California" (PDF). Science. 289 (5486): 1912–6. Bibcode:2000Sci...289.1912L. doi:10.1126/science.289.5486.1912. PMID 10988067. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-06-15

[”Michev”-20] [20]
Мичев (Michev), Николай (Nikolay); Михайлов (Mihaylov), Цветко (Tsvetko); Вапцаров (Vaptsarov), Иван (Ivan); Кираджиев (Kiradzhiev), Светлин (Svetlin) (1980). Географски речник на България [Geographic Dictionary of Bulgaria] (in Bulgarian). Sofia: Наука и култура (Nauka i kultura). p. 368

[”Dimitrova”-21] [21]
Димитрова (Dimitrova), Людмила (Lyudmila) (2004). Национален парк "Пирин". План за управление [Pirin National Park. Management Plan] (in Bulgarian). и колектив. Sofia: Ministry of Environment and Water, Bulgarian Foundation "Biodiversity". p. 53

[”Don”-22] [22]
Дончев (Donchev), Дончо (Doncho); Каракашев (Karakashev), Христо (Hristo) (2004). Теми по физическа и социално-икономическа география на България [Topics on Physical and Social-Economic Geography of Bulgaria] (in Bulgarian). Sofia: Ciela. pp. 128–129. ISBN 954-649-717-7

[”Bonow”-23] [23]
Bonow, Johan M. (2009). "atlantens kustberg och högslätter – gamla eller unga?" (PDF). www.geografitorget.se (in Swedish). Geografilärarnas Riksförening

[”Green”-24] [24]
Green, Paul F.; Lidmar-Bergström, Karna; Japsen, Peter; Bonow, Johan M.; Chalmers, James A. (2013). "Stratigraphic landscape analysis, thermochronology and the episodic development of elevated, passive continental margins". Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland Bulletin. 30: 18. doi:10.34194/geusb.v30.4673

[”apsen”-25] [25]
apsen, Peter; Chalmers, James A.; Green, Paul F.; Bonow, Johan M. (2012). "Elevated, passive continental margins: Not rift shoulders, but expressions of episodic, post-rift burial and exhumation". Global and Planetary Change. 90–91: 73–86. Bibcode:2012GPC....90...73J. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2011.05.004

[”Løseth”-26] [26]
Løseth and Hendriksen 2005

[”Niu”-27] [27]
Y Niu & MJ O'Hara (2004). "Chapter 7: Mantle plumes are NOT from ancient oceanic crust". In Roger Hékinian; Peter Stoffers & Jean-Louis Cheminée (eds.). Oceanic hotspots: intraplate submarine magmatism and tectonism. Springer. p. 239 ff. ISBN 978-3-540-40859-8.

[”-28] [28]
AB Watts (2001). "§7.2 Extensional tectonics and rifting". Isostasy and flexure of the lithosphere. Cambridge University Press. p. 295. ISBN 978-0-521-00600-2

[”GD”-29] [29]
GD Karner & NW Driscoll (1999). "Style, timing and distribution of tectonic deformation across the Exmouth Plateau, northwest Australia, determined from stratal architecture and quantitative basin modelling". In Conall Mac Niocaill & Paul Desmond Ryan (eds.). Continental tectonics. Geological society. p. 280. ISBN 978-1-86239-051-5

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