穆斯塔法·凯末尔·阿塔图尔克的个人崇拜

穆斯塔法·凯末尔·阿塔图尔克的个人崇拜始于穆斯塔法·凯末尔·阿塔图尔克的一生，^[1]在他于1938年去世后，他的继任者、共和人民党与反对党成员皆对他有了个人崇拜，^[2]在他本人在世时也出现了有限度的个人崇拜，藉以推广、巩固其作为土耳其共和国开国者兼首任总统所推行的社会、政治改革。^[3]有人将此等崇拜与苏联的个人崇拜相提并论，^[4]并被称为“朝鲜以外最怪诞的由国家支持的个人崇拜”。^[5]尽管土耳其表面上为多党制国家，但至少有半个世纪的时间，土耳其陆军一直都是该国的主要政治力量。^[6]

概述

第一次世界大战后，奥斯曼帝国被协约国击败并惨遭瓜分，穆斯塔法·凯末尔遂领导土耳其民族运动与希腊、亚美尼亚、法国、英国与其他侵略国进行独立战争。在其领导下，土耳其共和国于1923年正式成立。1934年，土耳其大国民议会授予其“阿塔图尔克”（土耳其人之父）之尊称。相关的头衔还包括“伟大的领袖”、“永恒的指挥官”、“校长”、“永恒的首领”。^[7]^[8]

对阿塔图尔克的纪念直到21世纪仍然为土耳其政治与社会的重要驵成部分。^[12]土耳其几乎每座城市都有以他的名字命名的街道，在城市广场、学校与公共办公场所也常常见到他的雕像，后两者甚至还有他的肖像。阿塔图尔克在1933年的共和国十周年庆典上发表的演讲的中使用了该句话：“说我是土耳其人的人是多么的幸福啊（英语：How happy is the one who says I am a Turk）。”随后这句话在土耳其国内被广泛使用，人们也经常在他的雕像前看到这句话。尽管在2013-18年期间被删除，但他仍然是学生必读誓词（英语：Student Oath (Turkey)）的一部分。^[13]该誓言后来在2021年又再次被删除。^[14]

人们有时会把阿塔图尔克的个人崇拜与努尔苏丹·纳扎尔巴耶夫与萨帕尔穆拉特·尼亚佐夫等中亚专制统治者的个人崇拜相提并论，^[15]但是由于阿塔图尔克在土耳其进行了民主与进步的改革，而且他的大部分雕像都是在他去世之后才被建立起来的，两者之间实际上相差甚大。举例来说，在1950年代以前，土耳其货币上只会有现任总统的头像，但是时任总理阿德南·曼德列斯为了在政治上打击竞争对手伊斯麦特·伊诺努，他通过了一项让已故的阿塔图尔克再次成为货币上的头像之法律，并不让伊诺努的头像出现在货币上。^[2]曼德列斯政府虽然反对阿塔图尔克的共和人民党（该党在议会中乃民主党（英语：Democrat Party (Turkey, 1946–1961)）的反对党），但是最终其还是在1953年，在阿塔图尔克去世15年后，将后者的遗体迁入陵墓。^[2]他还在1951年通过一项法律，将侮辱“阿塔图尔克的记忆”定为刑事犯罪。^[2]

《经济学人》在2012年时写道，对阿塔图尔克的个人崇拜“让这个国家充满了那位伟人的半身像与肖像”，“土耳其将军们利用他的名字推翻了四届政府，绞死了一位总理，并攻击了共和国的敌人”。^[16]根据这份英国周刊报导，“核心伊斯兰主义藐视阿塔图尔克，因为他在1924年废除哈里发制度，并将虔诚从公共空间中抹除。为此他们造谣称他到处拈花惹草加酗酒，甚至是个加密犹太人（英语：Crypto-Judaism）。”^[16]

2008年，《国家身份》上的一篇文章上也讨论了阿塔图尔克在土耳其无处不在的存在：

阿塔图尔克的故居存在于充斥着阿塔图尔克影子的环境中，他的面孔与言论出现在所有的官方文件、建筑物、电视频道、报纸、校园、硬币与钞票上。此外，无论其个人信仰如何，每个土耳其人都生活在一个民族主义成为标准政治话语的一部分之国家，政治家、教师和记者每次都在呼吁民族与阿塔图尔克。然而他们并非唯一的受害者，无处不在的阿塔图尔克纪念品只能部分归功于国家的赞助：阿塔图尔克的脸经常出现在超市柜台后面、理发店、音像店、书店与银行海报上，甚至还有挂在汽车后照镜上的阿塔图尔克护身符，以及装饰衣襟的阿塔图尔克别针。即便有土耳其人没有参加这种自发性纪念活动，他/她也会知道如何“解读”阿塔图尔克的符号世界。^[17]

阿塔图尔克保护法

1951年7月25日，时任总理阿德南·曼德列斯^[18]在阿塔图尔克去世13年后通过了土耳其第5816号法律（英语：Law on crimes committed against Atatürk），^[19]藉以保护“阿塔图尔克的记忆”不会受到任何土耳其公民的冒犯。^[20]2011年，因“侮辱阿塔图尔克”而被定罪的案件便有48起，^[16]最高可以判处三年有期徒刑。^[21]该法的解释相当广泛，除了上述对阿塔图尔克的纪念外，还包括对其遗产的保护。在国内诉讼中，那些质疑官方对共和国最初几年与阿塔图尔克的作用之积极评价的人都被指控。^[22]

纪念雕像

第一座阿塔图尔克雕像是在1926年由奥地利雕塑家海因里希·克里佩尔在伊斯坦布尔萨拉基里奥角雕刻而成。^[23]如今阿塔图尔克的雕像已经遍布土耳其各地。^[24]^[25]

参见

参考来源

[1]
Berger, Lutz. The Leader as Father. Personality Cults in Modern Turkey. Kemalism as a Fixed Variable in the Republic of Turkey. Ergon-Verlag. 2019: 119–128. ISBN 978-3-95650-632-1.
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Andrew Mango. Ataturk: The Biography of the founder of Modern Turkey. Overlook. 26 August 2002: 36. ISBN 978-1-59020-924-0. In 1937, Bayar had sought to outdo İnönü in his adulation of Atatürk. Now the Democrat Party government outdid him in signs of respect for Atatürk's memory. His body was transferred to a grandiose mausoleum in 1953. A law was passed in 1951 making it a criminal offense to insult Atatürk's memory.
[3]
Tezcür, Güneş Murat. Muslim Reformers in Iran and Turkey: The Paradox of Moderation. University of Texas Press. 2010: 70. ISBN 9780292773639. A man who was either irreligious or did not wear his faith on his sleeve, Atatürk established a cult of personality that has survived until now. He did not bother to attend the Friday prayers, a symbol of ruler-people unity...
[4]
Çandar, Cengiz (2000). Ataturk's Ambiguous Legacy （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）. The Wilson Quarterly, 24(4), 88.
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Bose, Sumantra. Secular States, Religious Politics. Cambridge University Press. 2018: 63 [2023-11-28]. ISBN 978-1-108-47203-6. （原始内容存档于2023-09-02）（英语）.
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Reilly, James A. Fragile Nation, Shattered Land: The Modern History of Syria. Bloomsbury Publishing. 2018: 161. ISBN 978-1-78673-450-1 （英语）.
[7]
Levine, Lynn A. Frommer's Turkey. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Pub. 2010: 31. ISBN 9780470877739. Mustafa Kemal was given the name Atatürk ("father of the Turks") by the Grand National Assembly
[8]
Villar, Juan. The Seventh Wonder. Coral Springs, FL: Llumina Press. 2004: 28. ISBN 9781595262417. The Turkish parliament proclaimed Mustafa's last name to be Ataturk, "Father of the Turks." Today, his picture hangs in every government office and business establishment, his state appears in every city, and his statues forbid that anything bad or ridiculous be said about him. Free Speech was not among Ataturk's reforms.
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Akyol, Mustafa. How Turkey Sabotaged Its Future. The New York Times. 2014 [2023-09-02]. ISSN 0362-4331 （美国英语）.
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Yavuz, M. Hakan. Islamic Political Identity in Turkey. Oxford University Press. 2003. ISBN 978-0-19-028965-2 （英语）.
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Tucker, Ernest. The Middle East in Modern World History. Routledge. 2016: 166. ISBN 978-1-315-50824-5 （英语）.
[12]
Foreign Press on Cyprus, Volumes 10-11, Public Information Office, 1997 "It is the army's self-appointed role to maintain the secular character of a state that is 90 percent Muslim, but whose modern founder Kemal Ataturk forcibly wrenched into Westernization. The Ataturk cult of personality still towers over Turkey"
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Court rules Student Oath should be reinstated in Turkey. Ahval News. Oct 18, 2018 [2023-11-28]. （原始内容存档于2021-08-16）.
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Andımız kararının gerekçesi açıklandı. www.haberturk.com. 2021-06-10 [2022-10-10]. （原始内容存档于2022-10-13）（土耳其语）.
[15]
Allison, Roy. Challenges for the former Soviet south. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press. 1996: 27. ISBN 9780815703211. A state-promoted "cult of personality" is developing rapidly in some of the Central Asian republics (although here, as in other ... This was clearly modeled on Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, the authoritarian modernizing leader of republican Turkey.
[16]
A secularist's lament. The Economist. 25 February 2012 [17 March 2013]. （原始内容存档于2018-01-16）.
[17]
Glyptis 2008，第356页.
[18]
Seibert, Thomas. Some Turks ready to abolish law that protects memory of Ataturk. The National. 16 August 2011 [13 July 2013]. （原始内容存档于2017-05-30）.
[19]
Bali, Rıfat N. New documents on Atatürk: Atatürk as viewed through the eyes of American diplomats. Isis Press. 2007: 32.
[20]
Kaya, Mehmed S. The Zaza Kurds of Turkey: A Middle Eastern Minority in a Globalised Society. London: Tauris Academic Studies. 2009: 209. ISBN 9781845118754.
[21]
Finkel, Andrew. Turkey: What Everyone Needs to Know. New York: Oxford University Press. 2012: 32. ISBN 9780199733040.
[22]
Baranowska, Grażyna. Bachmann, Klaus , 编. Memory laws in Turkey: protecting the memory of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Criminalizing History. Legal Restrictions on Statements and Interpretations of the Past in Germany, Poland, Rwanda, Turkey and Ukraine (Berlin: Peter Lang). 2020: 107–125 [2023-11-28]. ISBN 978-3-631-81353-9. （原始内容存档于2021-05-12）.
[23]
EĞRİKAVUK, IŞIL. Unaesthetic Atatürk monuments remain taboo in Turkey. Hurriyet. 9 January 2011 [21 March 2013]. （原始内容存档于2016-03-04）.
[24]
Navaro-Yashin, Yael. Faces of the State: Secularism and Public Life in Turkey. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press. 2002: 89. ISBN 9780691088457. Today the statue that is most frequently encountered all over Turkey is still that of Ataturk.
[25]
Üngör, Ugur Ümit. The Making of Modern Turkey:Nation and State in Eastern Anatolia, 1913-1950. Oxford University Press. 2011: 180. ISBN 9780191640766. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was the central focus of public manifestations of memory. Sculptures of him spread across the country in a matter of years and well before his death adorned every main square in the country.

文献

Copeaux, Etienne, ″La transcendance d'Atatürk″, in Mayeur-Jaouen Catherine (ed.), Saints et héros du Moyen-Orient contemporain, Paris, Maisonneuve et Larose, 2002, pp. 121–138.
Glyptis, Leda. Living up to the father: The national identity prescriptions of remembering Atatürk; his homes, his grave, his temple. National Identities (London). December 2008, 10 (4): 353–372. ISSN 1460-8944. S2CID 145591969. doi:10.1080/14608940802271647.
Mandel, Mike, and Zakari, Chantal, The State of Ata. The Contested Imagery of Power in Turkey, Eighteen Publications, Boston, 2010, 256-xvi p.

进一步阅读

The Myth of 'New Turkey': Kemalism and Erdoganism as Two Sides of the Same Coin. Dr. Ceren Şengül. News About Turkey. [2024-01-06]. （原始内容存档于2024-01-12）.

[1] [1]
Berger, Lutz. The Leader as Father. Personality Cults in Modern Turkey. Kemalism as a Fixed Variable in the Republic of Turkey. Ergon-Verlag. 2019: 119–128. ISBN 978-3-95650-632-1.

[Mango2002-2] [2]
Andrew Mango. Ataturk: The Biography of the founder of Modern Turkey. Overlook. 26 August 2002: 36. ISBN 978-1-59020-924-0. In 1937, Bayar had sought to outdo İnönü in his adulation of Atatürk. Now the Democrat Party government outdid him in signs of respect for Atatürk's memory. His body was transferred to a grandiose mausoleum in 1953. A law was passed in 1951 making it a criminal offense to insult Atatürk's memory.

[3] [3]
Tezcür, Güneş Murat. Muslim Reformers in Iran and Turkey: The Paradox of Moderation. University of Texas Press. 2010: 70. ISBN 9780292773639. A man who was either irreligious or did not wear his faith on his sleeve, Atatürk established a cult of personality that has survived until now. He did not bother to attend the Friday prayers, a symbol of ruler-people unity...

[4] [4]
Çandar, Cengiz (2000). Ataturk's Ambiguous Legacy （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）. The Wilson Quarterly, 24(4), 88.

[5] [5]
Bose, Sumantra. Secular States, Religious Politics. Cambridge University Press. 2018: 63 [2023-11-28]. ISBN 978-1-108-47203-6. （原始内容存档于2023-09-02）（英语）.

[6] [6]
Reilly, James A. Fragile Nation, Shattered Land: The Modern History of Syria. Bloomsbury Publishing. 2018: 161. ISBN 978-1-78673-450-1 （英语）.

[7] [7]
Levine, Lynn A. Frommer's Turkey. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Pub. 2010: 31. ISBN 9780470877739. Mustafa Kemal was given the name Atatürk ("father of the Turks") by the Grand National Assembly

[8] [8]
Villar, Juan. The Seventh Wonder. Coral Springs, FL: Llumina Press. 2004: 28. ISBN 9781595262417. The Turkish parliament proclaimed Mustafa's last name to be Ataturk, "Father of the Turks." Today, his picture hangs in every government office and business establishment, his state appears in every city, and his statues forbid that anything bad or ridiculous be said about him. Free Speech was not among Ataturk's reforms.

[9] [9]
Akyol, Mustafa. How Turkey Sabotaged Its Future. The New York Times. 2014 [2023-09-02]. ISSN 0362-4331 （美国英语）.

[10] [10]
Yavuz, M. Hakan. Islamic Political Identity in Turkey. Oxford University Press. 2003. ISBN 978-0-19-028965-2 （英语）.

[11] [11]
Tucker, Ernest. The Middle East in Modern World History. Routledge. 2016: 166. ISBN 978-1-315-50824-5 （英语）.

[12] [12]
Foreign Press on Cyprus, Volumes 10-11, Public Information Office, 1997 "It is the army's self-appointed role to maintain the secular character of a state that is 90 percent Muslim, but whose modern founder Kemal Ataturk forcibly wrenched into Westernization. The Ataturk cult of personality still towers over Turkey"

[13] [13]
Court rules Student Oath should be reinstated in Turkey. Ahval News. Oct 18, 2018 [2023-11-28]. （原始内容存档于2021-08-16）.

[14] [14]
Andımız kararının gerekçesi açıklandı. www.haberturk.com. 2021-06-10 [2022-10-10]. （原始内容存档于2022-10-13）（土耳其语）.

[15] [15]
Allison, Roy. Challenges for the former Soviet south. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press. 1996: 27. ISBN 9780815703211. A state-promoted "cult of personality" is developing rapidly in some of the Central Asian republics (although here, as in other ... This was clearly modeled on Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, the authoritarian modernizing leader of republican Turkey.

[economist-16] [16]
A secularist's lament. The Economist. 25 February 2012 [17 March 2013]. （原始内容存档于2018-01-16）.

[FOOTNOTEGlyptis2008356-17] [17]
Glyptis 2008，第356页.

[18] [18]
Seibert, Thomas. Some Turks ready to abolish law that protects memory of Ataturk. The National. 16 August 2011 [13 July 2013]. （原始内容存档于2017-05-30）.

[19] [19]
Bali, Rıfat N. New documents on Atatürk: Atatürk as viewed through the eyes of American diplomats. Isis Press. 2007: 32.

[20] [20]
Kaya, Mehmed S. The Zaza Kurds of Turkey: A Middle Eastern Minority in a Globalised Society. London: Tauris Academic Studies. 2009: 209. ISBN 9781845118754.

[21] [21]
Finkel, Andrew. Turkey: What Everyone Needs to Know. New York: Oxford University Press. 2012: 32. ISBN 9780199733040.

[22] [22]
Baranowska, Grażyna. Bachmann, Klaus , 编. Memory laws in Turkey: protecting the memory of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Criminalizing History. Legal Restrictions on Statements and Interpretations of the Past in Germany, Poland, Rwanda, Turkey and Ukraine (Berlin: Peter Lang). 2020: 107–125 [2023-11-28]. ISBN 978-3-631-81353-9. （原始内容存档于2021-05-12）.

[Hurriyet-23] [23]
EĞRİKAVUK, IŞIL. Unaesthetic Atatürk monuments remain taboo in Turkey. Hurriyet. 9 January 2011 [21 March 2013]. （原始内容存档于2016-03-04）.

[24] [24]
Navaro-Yashin, Yael. Faces of the State: Secularism and Public Life in Turkey. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press. 2002: 89. ISBN 9780691088457. Today the statue that is most frequently encountered all over Turkey is still that of Ataturk.

[25] [25]
Üngör, Ugur Ümit. The Making of Modern Turkey:Nation and State in Eastern Anatolia, 1913-1950. Oxford University Press. 2011: 180. ISBN 9780191640766. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was the central focus of public manifestations of memory. Sculptures of him spread across the country in a matter of years and well before his death adorned every main square in the country.

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