水烟

水烟（英语：hookah；印度斯坦语：हुक़्क़ा （天城文）、حقّہ（波斯体）、国际音标：[ˈɦʊqqaː]）又称胡卡，是一种烟草和抽烟用装置。人们用水烟抽鸦片、大麻属、烟叶等。

有关水烟的起源有两种理论。第一种认为在耶稣会把烟草带到了中世纪印度之后，来自阿克巴的波斯物理学家Abu'l-Fath Gilani在印度的在蒙兀儿王朝时期的法泰赫普尔西克里城市发明了水烟管^[1]^[2]。水烟从南亚次大陆先传至波斯，形成了今天的形状，然后传播至近东地区。^[3] 另一种理论认为水烟起源于波斯的萨非王朝，^[4]^[5] 随后逐渐向东传播至印度^[6]^[7]。

“胡卡”这个印度斯坦语的称呼，源自于阿拉伯语的水烟“حُقَّة‎”（ḥuqqa）。

中国

摘取霜冻后呈鲜红色的水烟叶，切碎，加亚麻籽油，浸透，压成四尺见方，用压榨机榨出油份，然后刨成薄片，放入模子内压成饼状。

比较昂贵的水烟，采取未经霜冻的绿色烟叶，加入少许绿石末，和入亚麻籽油，其余程序同上。^[8]

水烟壶（泰语：บ้อง; 英语：Bong）是中国传统的吸烟方式。十六世纪后经丝绸之路传入泰国、越南、中国等，流行于明代末年，盛行于清代、民国时期。水烟壶主要有两种：

竹管形：通常是在农村自制的，使用长度约70厘米的竹管，一端是开通的，另一端是封闭的。在从封闭处起测量竹管四分之一长度的位置，在那位置钻一个小孔，之后在那小孔斜插一个小竹管，再用牛皮胶、橡胶圈、环氧树脂等在接触点封口。在国外，艺术家或工匠亦会用吹制玻璃或丙烯酸制成竹管形水烟壶。
金属鹤形：通常当中国人想到的水烟壶就是金属鹤形的。慈禧太后是喜好这类的水烟壶。

很多人以为水烟经水过滤、且味道比香烟淡，故此对健康的损害低于香烟，但这种想法是错误的。世卫^[9]、美国的马约诊所^[10]及加州大学旧金山分校^[11]等研究证实，水烟对身体的损害不亚于香烟；水烟产生的有害物质，甚至比某些种类的香烟多。

^ 引用错误：没有为名为Sivaramakrishnan4-5的参考文献提供内容
[2]
The Wealth of India. Council of Scientific & Industrial Research. 1976 [2007-08-01]. （原始内容存档于2013-10-09）. The smoking of hookah and hubble-bubble started in India during the reign of the great Moghul emperor, Akbar
[3]
Khaled Aljarrah; Zaid Q Ababneh; Wael K Al-Delaimy. Perceptions of hookah smoking harmfulness: predictors and characteristics among current hookah users. Tobacco Induced Diseases. 2009, 5 (1): 16. ISSN 1617-9625. PMC 2806861 . PMID 20021672. doi:10.1186/1617-9625-5-16. Hookahs originated in India in the 15th century and then spread to the Near East countries. Hookahs spread first to Persia and underwent further changes to its original shape to the current known shape. In the middle of the 16th century, hookahs reached the Ottoman Empire, Egypt, and other Mediterranean regions.
[4]
ḠALYĀN – Encyclopaedia Iranica. www.iranicaonline.org. [2019-05-29]. （原始内容存档于2012-01-27）. It seems, therfore, [sic] that Abu’l-Fatḥ Gīlānī should be credited with the introduction of the ḡalyān, already in use in Persia, to India.
[5]
Nichola Fletcher. Charlemagne's tablecloth: a piquant history of feasting. Macmillan. 1 Aug 2005: 10 [2020-04-26]. ISBN 9780312340681. （原始内容存档于2020-08-06）.
[6]
Sandra Alters; Wendy Schiff. Essential Concepts for Healthy Living Update. Jones & Bartlett Learning. 28 Jan 2011 [2020-04-26]. ISBN 9780763789756. （原始内容存档于2020-08-06）.
[7]
Prakash C. Gupta. Control of tobacco-related cancers and other diseases: proceedings of an international symposium, January 15–19, 1990, TIFR, Bombay. Prakash C. Gupta. 1992: 33 [2020-04-26]. ISBN 9780195629613. （原始内容存档于2020-08-06）.
[8]
柔克义《喇嘛之乡》 Land of The Lamas p35
[9]
存档副本. [2010-02-01]. （原始内容存档于2009-05-01）.
[10]
存档副本. [2010-02-01]. （原始内容存档于2010-02-08）.
[11]
UCSF報告：水菸比香菸更有害. [2013-12-31]. （原始内容存档于2014-01-01）.

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[Sivaramakrishnan4-5-1] 引用错误：没有为名为Sivaramakrishnan4-5的参考文献提供内容

[Wealth-2] [2]
The Wealth of India. Council of Scientific & Industrial Research. 1976 [2007-08-01]. （原始内容存档于2013-10-09）. The smoking of hookah and hubble-bubble started in India during the reign of the great Moghul emperor, Akbar

[Aljarrah2009-3] [3]
Khaled Aljarrah; Zaid Q Ababneh; Wael K Al-Delaimy. Perceptions of hookah smoking harmfulness: predictors and characteristics among current hookah users. Tobacco Induced Diseases. 2009, 5 (1): 16. ISSN 1617-9625. PMC 2806861 . PMID 20021672. doi:10.1186/1617-9625-5-16. Hookahs originated in India in the 15th century and then spread to the Near East countries. Hookahs spread first to Persia and underwent further changes to its original shape to the current known shape. In the middle of the 16th century, hookahs reached the Ottoman Empire, Egypt, and other Mediterranean regions.

[4] [4]
ḠALYĀN – Encyclopaedia Iranica. www.iranicaonline.org. [2019-05-29]. （原始内容存档于2012-01-27）. It seems, therfore, [sic] that Abu’l-Fatḥ Gīlānī should be credited with the introduction of the ḡalyān, already in use in Persia, to India.

[5] [5]
Nichola Fletcher. Charlemagne's tablecloth: a piquant history of feasting. Macmillan. 1 Aug 2005: 10 [2020-04-26]. ISBN 9780312340681. （原始内容存档于2020-08-06）.

[common-6] [6]
Sandra Alters; Wendy Schiff. Essential Concepts for Healthy Living Update. Jones & Bartlett Learning. 28 Jan 2011 [2020-04-26]. ISBN 9780763789756. （原始内容存档于2020-08-06）.

[7] [7]
Prakash C. Gupta. Control of tobacco-related cancers and other diseases: proceedings of an international symposium, January 15–19, 1990, TIFR, Bombay. Prakash C. Gupta. 1992: 33 [2020-04-26]. ISBN 9780195629613. （原始内容存档于2020-08-06）.

[8] [8]
柔克义《喇嘛之乡》 Land of The Lamas p35

[9] [9]
存档副本. [2010-02-01]. （原始内容存档于2009-05-01）.

[10] [10]
存档副本. [2010-02-01]. （原始内容存档于2010-02-08）.

[11] [11]
UCSF報告：水菸比香菸更有害. [2013-12-31]. （原始内容存档于2014-01-01）.

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水烟

中国

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水烟

中国

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