Proto-Torres–Banks language

Proto-Torres-Banks (abbr. PTB) is the reconstructed ancestor of the seventeen languages of the Torres and Banks Islands of Vanuatu. Like all indigenous languages of Vanuatu, it belongs to the Oceanic branch of the Austronesian languages.

Proto-Torres-Banks
PTB
Reconstruction of	Torres–Banks languages
Region	Torres and Banks Islands
Era	after 1000 BCE
Reconstructed ancestors	Proto-Austronesian Proto-Malayo-Polynesian Proto-Oceanic Proto-North-Central Vanuatu

More specifically, it is the shared ancestor of the following modern languages: Hiw, Lo-Toga, Lehali, Löyöp, Volow, Mwotlap, Lemerig, Vera'a, Vurës, Mwesen, Mota, Nume, Dorig, Koro, Olrat, Lakon, and Mwerlap.

Reconstruction

Proto-Torres-Banks, as reconstructed with the comparative method from the attested daughter languages, evidently represented an early, mutually intelligible chain of Oceanic dialects in the northern part of Vanuatu starting from 1000 BCE after Lapita settlement of the archipelago, as evidenced by the pattern of loss and retention of the Proto-Oceanic phoneme *R, which merged with *r in the early history of the North-Central Vanuatu dialect chain. It therefore is not a "true" proto-language in the sense of an undifferentiated language ancestral to all Torres–Banks languages, but rather a part of the early North-Central Vanuatu linkage with some dialectal variation across different island groups, before they eventually disintegrated into mutually unintelligible languages.^[1]

Elements of the proto-language have been proposed by linguist A. François: vowels^[2] and consonants,^[3] personal pronouns,^[4] space system,^[5] vocabulary.^[6]

Phonology

Phoneme inventory

Proto-Torres-Banks had 5 phonemic vowels, /i e a o u/,^[2] and 16 consonants:

Vowels

	Front	Back
Close	*i	*u
Close-mid	*e	*o
Open	*a

Consonants

		Labiovelar	Bilabial	Alveolar	Dorsal
Stop	prenasalized	*ᵐbʷ	*ᵐb	*ⁿd	*ᵑg
	voiceless			*t
Nasal		*mʷ	*m	*n	*ŋ
Fricative			*β ⟨v⟩	*s	*ɣ
Approximant		*w		*l, *r	*j

Following the loss of final POc consonants (or dialectal addition of a paragogic vowel), syllable structure in Proto-Torres-Banks was open, i.e. (C)V with optional consonant: e.g. POc *uraŋ "crayfish" > PTB *ura/*uraŋi; POc *matiruʀ "to sleep" > PTB *matiru; POc *laŋit "sky" > PTB *laŋi "wind". No descendant language preserves this situation today, but it can still be found in other related languages such as Gela and Uneapa.

In trisyllabic words, the first vowel tends to be deleted or copied after the second vowel, with the exception of Mota and Lakon, which preserve them.^[2]

Stress fell on the penultimate syllable. Due to the pervasive loss of final vowels, descendant languages usually have stress on the final syllable.^[2] Vera'a and Mota have lost stress entirely.

Evolution of vowels

In all of the descendant languages except for Mota, vowel hybridization occurred (a form of metaphony or umlaut).^[2] Later, a process of vowel deletion took place whereby every second vowel, being unstressed, was dropped: this resulted in an increase in the number of vowel phonemes – a process known as transphonologization.^[2] For example, PTB *laŋi "wind" > HIW [jɔŋ], MTPTooltip Mwotlap language [lɛŋ], giving rise to phonemes /ɔ/ and /ɛ/ respectively.^[7] Words which initially had 4 syllables were reduced to 2 syllables (e.g. POc *RapiRapi "evening" > PTB *raβiˈraβi > MSNTooltip Mwesen language /rɛβrɛβ/ [rɛɸˈrɛɸ]); *CVCV disyllables were reduced to a single CVC syllable (e.g. POc *roŋoR "to hear" > PTB *roŋo > LKNTooltip Lakon language /rɔŋ/); words with 3 syllables ended up with 2, including *CVCVV which became *CVCV (e.g. POc *panua "island, land" > PTB *βanua > LKNTooltip Lakon language /βanʊ/).

In Mota, only single high vowels were dropped, evident even in the earliest records: e.g. *tolu "three" > /tol/. In the 1880s, Codrington reported cases when Mota had preserved high vowels (e.g. /siwo/ "down"; /tolu/ "three"), which have since disappeared from today's Mota (e.g. /swo/;^[8] /tol/).

In Hiw, Lo-Toga and Vera'a, the final vowel was retained as a schwa when it was originally lower than the one under stress:^[9] e.g. POc *ikan "fish" > PTB *íɣa > HIW /ɪɣə/, LTG /iɣə/. In Vera'a, the schwa became an echo vowel, e.g. POc *pulan "moon" > PTB *βula > *βulə > VRA /fulʊ/; that final vowel in Vera'a can disappear in phrase-medial position, yielding the form /ful/ for 'moon'.

Examples of reconstructions

PTB reconstruction	meaning	reflexes	Proto-Oceanic etymon	source
*[n]iᵑgo	‘2sg. pronoun, thou’	(1) *iᵑgo > HIWTooltip Hiw language /ikə/  (2) *niᵑgo > LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /nikə/, LHITooltip Lehali language /nɛk/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /niŋ/, VLWTooltip Volow language /nɪŋ/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /nɪk/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /næk/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /nikɪ/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /nɪk/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /nɪk/, MTATooltip Mota language /niko/, NUMTooltip Nume language /nik/, DRGTooltip Dorig language /nɪk/, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /nɪk/, OLRTooltip Olrat language /nɪk/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /nɪk/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /nɛ͡ak/	*[i]ko[e] "thou"	François 2016: 39
*lolomarani	‘wise, intelligent; wisdom, knowledge’	HIWTooltip Hiw language /jɵjməg͡ʟen/ ‘smart; to know’, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /lolmərɛn/ ‘smart; to know’, LHITooltip Lehali language /lɛlməjæn/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /lɔlmɛjɛn/, VLWTooltip Volow language /lɔlmɛjɛn/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /lɔlmɛjɛn/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /lɪlmɛrɛn/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /lʊlmaran/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /lʊlʊmɛrɛn/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /lɔlmɛrɛn/, MTATooltip Mota language /lolomaran/, DRGTooltip Dorig language /llɔmraːn/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /lɔlmaːræn/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /lɔlmɛrɛn/	*lalom "inside" + *ma-Raqani "daylight"	François 2013: 208
*rowo	‘dash, escape; out; seawards’	HIWTooltip Hiw language /g͡ʟow/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /row/, LHITooltip Lehali language /jɔw/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /jɔw/, VLWTooltip Volow language /jɔ/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /jɔw/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /rɔw/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /rʊw/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /rʊw/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /rɔw/, MTATooltip Mota language /rowo/, NUMTooltip Nume language /rɔw/ ‘dash+’, DRGTooltip Dorig language /rɔw/ ‘dash+’, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /rɔw/ ‘dash+’, OLRTooltip Olrat language /rɔw/ ‘dash+’, LKNTooltip Lakon language /rɔw/ ‘dash+’, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /rɔw/	*Ropok ‘dash, fly’	François 2015: 191
*salaɣoro	‘secret; secret meeting place in the bush for men during initiation rituals’	LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /hɔləɣor/, LHITooltip Lehali language /n-halɣɛj/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /n-salɣoj/, VLWTooltip Volow language /n-halɣoj/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /na-halɣoj/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /n-sɒlɣœr/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /salɣʊr/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /salɣʊr/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /salɣɔr/, MTATooltip Mota language /salaɣoro/, NUMTooltip Nume language /salɔwɔr/, DRGTooltip Dorig language /salɣɔr/, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /salɣɔr/, OLRTooltip Olrat language /salwɔj/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /salwɔː/	*jalan "road" + PNCV *koro "obstruct"	François 2005: 499
*s[i,u]wo	‘down; northwest’	(1) *siwo > HIWTooltip Hiw language /hiw/ "Hiw (island)", LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /iw/, MTATooltip Mota language /siwo/ (modern /swo/)  (2) *suwo > HIWTooltip Hiw language /ʉw/, LHITooltip Lehali language /hɔw/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /sʊw/, VLWTooltip Volow language /hʊ/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /hʊw/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /sʊw/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /suwʊ/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /sʊw/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /sʊw/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /hʊw/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /sʊw/	*sipo "down"	François 2015: 190
*totoɣale	‘notch (wood), carve an effigy; effigy, image’	MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /nɔ-tɔtɣal/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /ʔɔɣal/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /ʔʊɣal/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /tʊtɣi͡al/, MTATooltip Mota language /totoɣale/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /tɔtɣæl/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /nɛ-tɛtɣɛl/	*toto(k) "cut" + PNCV *kale "deceive"	François 2013: 198

Regular sound changes from Proto-Oceanic

The historical sound changes that took place from Proto-Oceanic (POc) to Proto-Torres-Banks (PTB) were intricate, yet largely regular. Some have been reconstructed explicitly, whether on vowels^[2] or on consonants;^[3][10] others are implicit in published lists of PTB lexical reconstructions.^[6]

Pervasive phonological sound changes include:

• The loss of all final POc consonants, such as POc *manuk "bird" > PTB *manu. This sound change resulted in the language having only open syllables.^[11]
• The labialization of POc *p, *ᵐb and *m before *o or *u, resulting in PTB *w (< *βʷ), *ᵐbʷ and *mʷ (especially in Torres and northern Banks languages).

Considering each POc proto-phoneme sequentially, the PTB reflexes can be listed in the following table.

POc	PTB reflex	Comments	Examples	Source
*pʷ	*βʷ > *w	> /w/ in all daughter languages.	- POc *puia "good"[12] > *pʷia > *βʷia > PTB *wia > HIWTooltip Hiw language /wi̯ə/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /⟨ɣɛ-wi̯ə/, VLWTooltip Volow language /⟨ɣɛ-wɪ/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /wɪ/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /wi/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /wiɪ/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /wɪ/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /wɪ/, MTATooltip Mota language /wia/, DRGTooltip Dorig language /wɪ/, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /wɪ/, OLRTooltip Olrat language /wɪ/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /wɪ/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /wɛ͡a/
*p	*β	> /β/ in most daughter languages, except: /f/ in VRATooltip Vera'a language. *β tends to become /w/ before *o or *u.	- POc *panua "island, land" > PTB *βanua > HIWTooltip Hiw language /βəniɵ/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /βəniə/, LHITooltip Lehali language /n-βɔnɔ/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /n-βʊnʊ/, VLWTooltip Volow language /n-βʊnʊ/,, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /na-pnʊ/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /n-βʊnʊ/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /funuʊ/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /βono/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /βʊnʊ/, MTATooltip Mota language /βanua/, NUMTooltip Nume language /βunu/, DRGTooltip Dorig language /βnʊ/, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /βʊnʊ/, OLRTooltip Olrat language /βʊnʊ/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /βanʊ/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /βʊnʊ/[2]: 469	[3]
	*w	Before a rounded vowel, *p > *β > *βʷ > /w/ often (though not always); mostly in northern languages	- POc *poli "to buy" > *βoli > *βʷoli > PTB *woli > MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /wɪl/, MTATooltip Mota language /wol/ - PTB *[β,βʷ]usi "hit, kill"  > (1) *βusi > VRATooltip Vera'a language /fus/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /βys/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /βus/, MTATooltip Mota language /βus/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /βuh/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /βus/  > (2) *βʷusi > *wusi > HIWTooltip Hiw language /wu/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /wuh/, VLWTooltip Volow language /wih/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /wuh/	[3]
*t	*t	> /t/ in all daughter languages, except: /ʔ/ in LMGTooltip Lemerig language and VRATooltip Vera'a language /t͡ʃ/ in LYPTooltip Löyöp language before front vowels. *ti > /s/ in LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language and LKNTooltip Lakon language.	- POc *[qa]tamate "dead person" > PTB *[a]tamate "ghost, spirit" > HIWTooltip Hiw language /təmet/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /təmet/, LHITooltip Lehali language /n-təmat/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /n-tamat/, VLWTooltip Volow language /n-tamat/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /na-tmat/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /ʔamaʔ/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /ʔamaʔ/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /timi͡at/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /tamat/, MTATooltip Mota language /tamate/, NUMTooltip Nume language /tamat/, DRGTooltip Dorig language /tmat/, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /tamat/, OLRTooltip Olrat language /tamat/ LKNTooltip Lakon language /ætmæt/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /nɛ-tɛmɛt/[13]: 213  - POc *pati "four" > PTB *βati > HIWTooltip Hiw language /βɔt/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /βɛt/, LHITooltip Lehali language /βæt/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /βɛt/, VLWTooltip Volow language /n-βɛt/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /βɛt/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /βɛʔ/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /fɛʔ/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /βɛt/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /βɛt/, MTATooltip Mota language /βat/, NUMTooltip Nume language /βat/, DRGTooltip Dorig language /βaːt/, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /βɛ͡at/, OLRTooltip Olrat language /βat/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /βæs/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /βɛt/	[3]
*k	*ɣ	> /ɣ/ in all daughter languages, except: Before *o or *u, in some languages, *ɣ tends to become w. In LHITooltip Lehali language, LYPTooltip Löyöp language, VLWTooltip Volow language, NUMTooltip Nume language and possibly KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu), *ɣ was lost in coda position. In OLRTooltip Olrat language, *ɣ was lost in coda position and triggered compensatory lengthening of a preceding vowel.[14]	- POc *kutu > PTB *ɣutu "louse" > HIWTooltip Hiw language /ɣit/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /ɣʉt/, LHITooltip Lehali language /wut/, LHITooltip Löyöp language /wut/, VLWTooltip Volow language /ni-ɣit/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /ni-ɣit/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /wuʔ/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /wuʔ/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /wyt/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /wut/, MTATooltip Mota language /wut/, NUMTooltip Nume language /wu-wut/, DRGTooltip Dorig language /wut/, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /ɣut/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /wut/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /wut/ - POc *sake "up" > PTB *saɣe > HIWTooltip Hiw language /aɣ/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /[i]aɣ/, LHITooltip Lehali language /ha/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /sa/, VLWTooltip Volow language /ha/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /haɣ/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /saɣ/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /saɣ/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /si͡aɣ/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /saɣ/, MTATooltip Mota language /saɣe/, NUMTooltip Nume language /sa/, DRGTooltip Dorig language /saɣ/, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /sa[ɣ]/, OLRTooltip Olrat language /saː/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /haɣ/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /sɛ͡aɣ/[2]: 499	[3]
*ᵐbʷ	*ᵐbʷ (>*ᵑᵐg͡bʷ)	> /ᵑᵐg͡bʷ/ in VLWTooltip Volow language /k͡pʷ/ in all Banks languages except VLWTooltip Volow language and MRLTooltip Mwerlap language. /kʷ/ in HIWTooltip Hiw language, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language, LHITooltip Lehali language and MRLTooltip Mwerlap language.	- POc *ᵐbʷatu(k) "head" + -ᵑgu "my" > PTB *ᵐbʷatu-ᵑgu "my head" > *ᵑᵐg͡bʷatu-ᵑgu > HIWTooltip Hiw language /kʷiti-k/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /kʷətʉ-k/, LHITooltip Lehali language /n-kʷutu-k/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /n-k͡pʷit͡ʃi-k/, VLWTooltip Volow language /n-ᵑᵐg͡bʷiti-ŋ/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /ni-k͡pʷti-k/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /n-k͡pʷiʔi-k/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /k͡pʷiʔi-k/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /k͡pʷøty-k/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /k͡pʷutu-k/, MTATooltip Mota language /k͡pʷatu-k/, NUMTooltip Nume language /na-k͡pʷutu-k/, DRGTooltip Dorig language /na-k͡pʷtu-k/, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /k͡pʷutu-k/, OLRTooltip Olrat language /k͡pʷutu-k/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /k͡pʷatʊ-k/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /nɞ-kʷɞtʉ-k/	[3]
*ᵐb	*ᵐb	(in onset position of modern syllable) /ᵐb/ in VLWTooltip Volow language, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language, VRATooltip Vera'a language, VRSTooltip Vurës language, NUMTooltip Nume language, DRGTooltip Dorig language, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu), MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /p/ in HIWTooltip Hiw language, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language, LHITooltip Lehali language, LYPTooltip Löyöp language, LMGTooltip Lemerig language, MSNTooltip Mwesen language, MTATooltip Mota language, OLRTooltip Olrat language, LKNTooltip Lakon language.	- POc *ᵐbanic "wing" + -ᵑgu "my" > PTB *ᵐbani-ᵑgu "my hand; my wing" > HIWTooltip Hiw language /pini-k/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /pɛnɛ-k/, VLWTooltip Volow language /n-mɪnɪ-ŋ/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /na-mnɪ-k/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /pini-k/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /ᵐbini-k/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /ᵐbɛni-k/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /pini-k/, MTATooltip Mota language /pane-k/, NUMTooltip Nume language /ᵐbini-k/, DRGTooltip Dorig language /na-ᵐbni-k/, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /ᵐbini-k/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /panɪ-k/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /ᵐbani-k/	[3]
		(in coda position of modern syllable) /ᵐb/ in DRGTooltip Dorig language /m/ in LHITooltip Lehali language, LYPTooltip Löyöp language, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language, VLWTooltip Volow language, VRATooltip Vera'a language, VRSTooltip Vurës language, NUMTooltip Nume language, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu), MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /p/ in HIWTooltip Hiw language, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language, LMGTooltip Lemerig language, MSNTooltip Mwesen language, MTATooltip Mota language, OLRTooltip Olrat language, LKNTooltip Lakon language.	- PTB *leᵐba "mud, muddy" > HIWTooltip Hiw language /jepə/ “swamp”, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /lɛpə/ “swamp”, LHITooltip Lehali language /n-læm/ “swamp garden for taro”, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /n-lɛm/ “dirty, muddy”, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /lɛm/ “dirty, muddy”, MTATooltip Mota language /lepa/, DRGTooltip Dorig language /lɛᵐb/ “soil, ground”, OLRTooltip Olrat language /lɛp/ “soil, ground”	[3]
	*ᵐbʷ	*ᵐb before a rounded vowel. → same reflexes as with *ᵐbʷ.	- POc *ᵐboŋi "night" > PTB *ᵐbʷoŋi > *ᵑᵐg͡bʷoŋi > HIWTooltip Hiw language /kɵŋ/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /kʷəŋ/, LHITooltip Lehali language /kʷɔŋ/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /k͡pʷʊŋ/, VLWTooltip Volow language /n-ᵑᵐg͡bʷɪŋ/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /k͡pʷʊŋ/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /k͡pʷøŋ/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /k͡pʷʊŋ/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /k͡pʷøŋ/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /k͡pʷʊŋ/, MTATooltip Mota language /k͡pʷoŋ/, NUMTooltip Nume language /k͡pʷʊŋ/, DRGTooltip Dorig language /k͡pʷʊŋ/, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /k͡pʷʊŋ/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /k͡pʷɪŋ/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /kʷʊŋ/	[3]
*ⁿd / *ⁿdr	*ⁿd	(in onset position of modern syllable) /ⁿd/ in all Torres-Banks languages, except: /t/ in HIWTooltip Hiw language and LMGTooltip Lemerig language /ʈ͡ʂ/ in LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language.[15] /t͡ʃ/ in OLRTooltip Olrat language and LKNTooltip Lakon language /n/ in MSNTooltip Mwesen language and MTATooltip Mota language	- POc *ⁿdraRaq "blood" > PTB *ⁿdara > HIWTooltip Hiw language /tag͡ʟə/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /ʈ͡ʂarə/, LHITooltip Lehali language /n-ⁿdaj/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /n-ⁿdaj/, VLWTooltip Volow language /n-ⁿdaj/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /na-ⁿdaj/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /tɒr/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /ⁿdara/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /ⁿdar/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /nar/, MTATooltip Mota language /nara/, NUMTooltip Nume language /ⁿdar/, DRGTooltip Dorig language /ⁿdar/, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /ⁿdar/, OLRTooltip Olrat language /t͡ʃaj/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /t͡ʃæː/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /na-ⁿdar/	[3]
		(in coda position of modern syllable) /ⁿd/ in DRGTooltip Dorig language /t/ in HIWTooltip Hiw language, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /t͡ʃ/ in OLRTooltip Olrat language and LKNTooltip Lakon language /n/ in all other Torres-Banks languages	- POc *kita "1 incl:plTooltip Inclusive we" > PTB *ɣiⁿda > HIWTooltip Hiw language /titə/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /ɣiʈ͡ʂə/, LHITooltip Lehali language /ɣɛn/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /jɛn/, VLWTooltip Volow language /ɣɪn/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /ɣɪn/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /ɣæt/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /ɣiⁿdɪ/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /nin/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /nin/, MTATooltip Mota language /nina/, NUMTooltip Nume language /ɣin/, DRGTooltip Dorig language /ɣɪⁿd/, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /ɣin/, OLRTooltip Olrat language /ɣɪt͡ʃ/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /ɣɪt͡ʃ/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /ɣɛ͡an/[16] - PTB *ⁿdiⁿdi “wall in; enclosure” > HIWTooltip Hiw language /tit/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /ʈ͡ʂit/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /ⁿdin/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /ⁿdin/, MTATooltip Mota language /nin/ - POc *roⁿdrom “think” > PTB *[ⁿdo]ⁿdo[mi]  > (1) *ⁿdomi > LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /ʈ͡ʂo͡əm/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /ⁿdɪm/, MTATooltip Mota language /nom/, DRGTooltip Dorig language /ⁿdʊm/, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /ⁿdʊm/  > (2) *ⁿdoⁿdo > HIWTooltip Hiw language /tot/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /ʈ͡ʂot/, LHITooltip Lehali language /ⁿdɛn/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /ⁿdɔn/, VLWTooltip Volow language /ⁿdɔn/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /tœt/  > (3) *ⁿdoⁿdomi > HIWTooltip Hiw language /ttɵm/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /ʈ͡ʂo͡əm/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /ⁿdʊⁿdʊm/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /ⁿdøⁿdøm/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /nʊnʊm/, MTATooltip Mota language /nonom/, NUMTooltip Nume language /ⁿdʊⁿdʊm/, OLRTooltip Olrat language /t͡ʃɪt͡ʃɪm/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /t͡ʃɪːt͡ʃɪm/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /ⁿdɵⁿdʊ͡ɵm/  > (4) *ⁿdomiⁿdomi > LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /ʈ͡ʂəmʈ͡ʂo͡əm/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /ⁿdɪmⁿdɪm/	[3]
*ᵑg	*ᵑg	Retained as /ᵑg/ in VLWTooltip Volow language. /k/ in all other daughter languages.	- POc *kuRiap "dolphin" > PTB *ᵑg[ur]io  > (1) *ᵑgurio > HIWTooltip Hiw language /kʷg͡ʟɪ/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /kʷuriə/  > (2) *ᵑgio > LHITooltip Lehali language /n-kɛ/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /n-kɪ/, VLWTooltip Volow language /nɪ-ᵑgɪ/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /nɪ-kɪ/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /kɪ/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /kɪ/, MTATooltip Mota language /kio/, NUMTooltip Nume language /wi-ki/, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /kɪ/, OLRTooltip Olrat language /kɪ/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /kɪ/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /nɛ-kɛ͡a/	[3]
*mʷ	*mʷ (>*ŋ͡mʷ)	> /ŋ͡mʷ/ in most daughter languages. /ŋʷ/ in HIWTooltip Hiw language, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language, LHITooltip Lehali language and MRLTooltip Mwerlap language.	- POc *mʷata "snake" > PTB *mʷata > *ŋ͡mʷata > HIWTooltip Hiw language /ŋʷatə/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /ŋʷetə/, LHITooltip Lehali language /ŋʷat/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /ŋ͡mʷat/, VLWTooltip Volow language /n-ŋ͡mʷat/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /na-ŋ͡mʷat/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /ŋ͡mʷaʔ/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /ŋ͡mʷaʔa/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /ŋ͡mʷat/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /ŋ͡mʷat/, MTATooltip Mota language /ŋ͡mʷata/, NUMTooltip Nume language /ŋ͡mʷat/, DRGTooltip Dorig language /ŋ͡mʷat/, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /ŋ͡mʷa/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /ŋ͡mʷat/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /ŋʷat/
*m	*m	> /m/ in all daughter languages.	- POc *mate "die, dead" > PTB *mate > HIWTooltip Hiw language /met/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /met/, LHITooltip Lehali language /mat/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /mat/, VLWTooltip Volow language /mat/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /mat/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /maʔ/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /maʔ/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /mi͡at/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /mat/, MTATooltip Mota language /mate/, NUMTooltip Nume language /mat/, DRGTooltip Dorig language /mat/, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /mat/, OLRTooltip Olrat language /mat/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /mæt/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /mɛt/
	*mʷ	*m before a rounded vowel → same reflexes as with *mʷ (often, though not always; mostly in northern languages).	- POc *mule "return" > PTB *m[ʷ]ule  > (1) *mule > LMGTooltip Lemerig language /mʊl/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /mulʊ/, MTATooltip Mota language /mule/, DRGTooltip Dorig language /mʊl/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /mulæ/  > (2) *mʷule > HIWTooltip Hiw language /ŋʷujə/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /ŋʷulə/, LHITooltip Lehali language /ŋʷɔl/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /ŋ͡mʷʊl/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /ŋ͡mʷʊl/
*n / *ñ	*n	> /n/ in all daughter languages.	- POc *ñatuq "Burckella" > PTB *natu > HIWTooltip Hiw language /nɔt/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /nɛ-nɛt/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /nɛʔ/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /nœt/, MTATooltip Mota language /natu/, - POc *ñamuk "mosquito" > PTB *namu[ɣi]  > (1) *namu > LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /ni͡ɛm/, LHITooltip Lehali language /næm/, LHITooltip Löyöp language /nɛm/, VLWTooltip Volow language /n-nɛm/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /nɛ-nɛm/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /nœm/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /nam/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /nɛm/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /nɔm/, MTATooltip Mota language /nam[u]/, NUMTooltip Nume language /nam/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /nɞ-nɔm/  > (2) *namuɣi > DRGTooltip Dorig language /ⁿdŋ͡mʷuɣ/, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /muɣ/, OLRTooltip Olrat language /muː/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /namuɣ/
*ŋ	*ŋ	> /ŋ/ in all daughter languages.	- POc *qaŋaRi "Canarium" > PTB *[a]ŋa[r]i  > (1) *[a]ŋari > HIWTooltip Hiw language /ŋeg͡ʟ/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /ŋɛr/, LHITooltip Lehali language /n-ŋæj/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /n-ŋɪj/, VLWTooltip Volow language /n-ŋɛj/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /na-ŋɛj/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /n-ŋɛr/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /ŋar/,  > (2) *[a]ŋai > MTATooltip Mota language /ŋai/, NUMTooltip Nume language /ŋa/, DRGTooltip Dorig language /ŋa/, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /ŋa/, OLRTooltip Olrat language /ŋa/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /aŋæ/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /nɪ-ŋɪ/
*s / *c / *j	*s	Usually /s/ in the daughter languages, but can debuccalize or disappear under uncertain conditions: /s/ or /h/ in LHITooltip Lehali language, VLWTooltip Volow language, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language and LKNTooltip Lakon language /h/ or Ø in LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /s/ or /t/ or Ø in HIWTooltip Hiw language.	- POc *sake "up" > PTB *saɣe > HIWTooltip Hiw language /aɣ/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /[i]aɣ/, LHITooltip Lehali language /ha/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /sa/, VLWTooltip Volow language /ha/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /haɣ/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /saɣ/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /saɣ/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /si͡aɣ/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /saɣ/, MTATooltip Mota language /saɣe/, NUMTooltip Nume language /sa/, DRGTooltip Dorig language /saɣ/, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /sa[ɣ]/, OLRTooltip Olrat language /saː/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /haɣ/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /sɛ͡aɣ/ - POc *sale "to float" > PTB *sale > HIWTooltip Hiw language /aj/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /al/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /hal/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /sal/, MTATooltip Mota language /sale/	[3]
*l	*l	> /l/ in all daughter languages except: /j/ in HIWTooltip Hiw language.	- POc *lalo-ᵑgu "my inside" > PTB *lolo-ᵑgu "my mind" > HIWTooltip Hiw language /jɵ-k/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /lio-k/, LHITooltip Lehali language /n-lɪ-k/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /n-lø-k/, VLWTooltip Volow language /n-lɪ-ŋ/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /na-lɪ-k/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /n-lø-k/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /lʊ-k/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /lølø-k/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /lʊlʊ-k/, MTATooltip Mota language /lolo-k/, NUMTooltip Nume language /na-llɔ-k/, DRGTooltip Dorig language /na-llʊ-k/, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /na-llʊ-k/, OLRTooltip Olrat language /lʊlʊ-k/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /lɔlɔ-k/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /lɵ-k/	[13]: 204
*r	*r	Preserved as an alveolar trill /r/ in most daughter languages, except: /g͡ʟ/ in HIWTooltip Hiw language /j/ in LHITooltip Lehali language, LYPTooltip Löyöp language, VLWTooltip Volow language, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /j/ in OLRTooltip Olrat language (in syllable codas) In syllable codas, *r disappears in LKNTooltip Lakon language with compensatory lengthening of a preceding vowel.[10]	- POc *roŋoR "to hear" > PTB *roŋo > HIWTooltip Hiw language /g͡ʟoŋ/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /roŋ/, LHITooltip Lehali language /jɛŋ/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /jɔŋ/, VLWTooltip Volow language /jɔŋ-tɛɣ/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /jɔŋ-tɛɣ/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /rɔŋ/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /rʊŋ/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /roŋ-tɛɣ/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /rɔŋ-tɛ/, MTATooltip Mota language /roŋo/, NUMTooltip Nume language /rɔŋɔ-tɛ/, DRGTooltip Dorig language /rɔŋ/, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /rɔŋ/, OLRTooltip Olrat language /rɔŋ/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /rɔŋ-tæɣ/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /rɔŋ/[2]: 482  - POc *paRi "stingray" > PTB *βari > HIWTooltip Hiw language /βɔg͡ʟ/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /βɛr/, LHITooltip Lehali language /n-βæj/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /n-βɪj/, VLWTooltip Volow language /n-βɪj/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /nɛ-βɛj/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /n-βɛr/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /fɛr/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /βœr/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /βɛr/, MTATooltip Mota language /βar/, NUMTooltip Nume language /fɛr/, DRGTooltip Dorig language /βaːr/, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /βɛ͡ar/, OLRTooltip Olrat language /βaj/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /βæː/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /nɛ-βɛr/
*R	*r / Ø	In most cases the reflexes are consistent across Torres–Banks languages: either they all lost *R, or all reflect them as *r. However, for about 20 words, the reflexes are inconsistent, with *R preserved in northern languages vs. lost further south; this is evidence that PTB formed a network of separated dialects.[1]	- POc *qaŋaRi "Canarium" > PTB *[a]ŋa[r]i  > (1) *[a]ŋari > HIWTooltip Hiw language /ŋeg͡ʟ/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /ŋɛr/, LHITooltip Lehali language /n-ŋæj/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /n-ŋɪj/, VLWTooltip Volow language /n-ŋɛj/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /na-ŋɛj/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /n-ŋɛr/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /ŋar/,  > (2) *[a]ŋai > MTATooltip Mota language /ŋai/, NUMTooltip Nume language /ŋa/, DRGTooltip Dorig language /ŋa/, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /ŋa/, OLRTooltip Olrat language /ŋa/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /aŋæ/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /nɪ-ŋɪ/ - POc *kuRiap "dolphin" > PTB *ᵑg[ur]io  > (1) *ᵑgurio > HIWTooltip Hiw language /kʷg͡ʟɪ/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /kʷuriə/  > (2) *ᵑgio > LHITooltip Lehali language /n-kɛ/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /n-kɪ/, VLWTooltip Volow language /nɪ-ᵑgɪ/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /nɪ-kɪ/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /kɪ/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /kɪ/, MTATooltip Mota language /kio/, NUMTooltip Nume language /wi-ki/, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /kɪ/, OLRTooltip Olrat language /kɪ/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /kɪ/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /nɛ-kɛ͡a/	[10]
*q	Ø (hiatus)	Sequences of identical vowels that resulted after its loss were reduced to a single vowel, as in POc *saqat-i "bad" > PTB *sati.	- POc *saqat "bad" > PTB *saa[ti]  > (1) *saa > HIWTooltip Hiw language /ssa/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /hi͡a/, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /sa/, OLRTooltip Olrat language /sa/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /sa/  > (2) *sati > LHITooltip Lehali language /sæt/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /sɛt/, VLWTooltip Volow language /hɪt/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /hɛt/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /sɛʔ/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /sɛʔ/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /sɪt/  > (3) *tatasi (metathesis) > MTATooltip Mota language /tatas/, NUMTooltip Nume language /ttɪs/, DRGTooltip Dorig language /ttaːs/
*w	*w	Generally preserved only in the Torres languages and lost in the Banks languages. Sometimes retained between vowels: PNCV *marawa "spider" > PTB *marawa > MTATooltip Mota language /marawa/.	- POc *waᵑga "canoe" > PTB *waᵑga > HIWTooltip Hiw language /wakə/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /ekə/, LHITooltip Lehali language /n-ɒk/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /n-ɔŋ/, VLWTooltip Volow language /n-ɔk/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /n-ɔk/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /naka/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /ak/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /ak/, MTATooltip Mota language /aka/, NUMTooltip Nume language /w-ak/, DRGTooltip Dorig language /ak/, OLRTooltip Olrat language /n-ak/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /n-ak/ - POc *ᵐbakewa "shark" > PTB *ᵐbaɣewa  > (1) HIWTooltip Hiw language /poweɣə/ (metathesis), LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /pəɣɛwə/  > (2) *ᵐbaɣea > LHITooltip Lehali language /n-pəɣæ/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /n-pɛɣɛ/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /ᵐbɛɣiɛ/, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /ᵐbɛɣɛ/, OLRTooltip Olrat language /pɛɣɛ/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /paɣɛ/  > (3) *ᵐbaɣoa > MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /na-ᵐbaɣɔ/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /pɔɣɔ/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /ᵐboɣo/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /pɔɣɔ/, MTATooltip Mota language /paɣoa/, NUMTooltip Nume language /ᵐbɔɣɔ/, DRGTooltip Dorig language /ᵐbɣɔ/, MRLTooltip Mwerlap language /na-ᵐbaɣɔ/
*y	*y	Generally lost in the daughter languages. Cases such as PNCV *maraya "eel" > PTB *maraya, where reflexes such as MTATooltip Mota language /marea/ and LKNTooltip Lakon language /marɛ/ presuppose *marea, but MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /na-mja/ presupposes *maraa, can be taken as evidence that PTB had not yet lost the phoneme.	- POc *kawaR "potent root" > *kawa > *kaya (irregular change) > PTB *ɣaya > HIWTooltip Hiw language /ɣa/, LTGTooltip Lo-Toga language /ɣi/, LYPTooltip Löyöp language /n-ɣa/, VLWTooltip Volow language /na-ɣa/, MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /na-ɣa/, LMGTooltip Lemerig language /n-ɣa/, VRATooltip Vera'a language /ɣiɛ/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /ɣɪ/, MSNTooltip Mwesen language /ɣɛ/, MTATooltip Mota language /ɣea/, NUMTooltip Nume language /ɣɛ/, DRGTooltip Dorig language /ɣɛ/, KROTooltip Koro language (Vanuatu) /ɣɛ/, OLRTooltip Olrat language /ɣɛ/, LKNTooltip Lakon language /ɣɛ/

Grammar

Pronouns

The pronouns of Proto-Torres-Banks are (from François 2016: 33-35):

		Singular	Dual	Trial	Plural
1st person	exclusive	*nau	*[ɣ,ᵑg]amarua	*[ɣ,ᵑg]amatolu	*[ɣ,ᵑg]ama[m]i
	inclusive		*ɣiⁿdarua	*ɣiⁿdatolu	*ɣiⁿda
2nd person		*[n]iᵑgo	*[ɣ,ᵑg]amurua	*[ɣ,ᵑg]amutolu	*[ɣ,ᵑg]amuyu
3rd person		*nia	*[i]rarua	*[i]ratolu	*[ɣ,ᵑg]ira

Numbers

The following are reconstructions for numbers 1–10 for PTB:^{[citation needed]}

1. *tea, *tuwale
2. *rua
3. *tolu
4. *βati
5. *taβea-lima
6. *laβea-tea
7. *laβea-rua
8. *laβea-tolu
9. *laβea-βati
10. *saŋaβulu

Example sentence

A reconstructed sentence (from François 2009:191):

*Nau

1SG

ᵑgu=

AO:1SG=

mule

return

ᵑgu=

AO:1SG=

maturu.

sleep

*Nau ᵑgu= mule ᵑgu= maturu.

1SG AO:1SG= return AO:1SG= sleep

'So I went back and slept.'/'Let me go back and sleep!'

Notes

1. François (2011).
2. François (2005).
3. François (2016): 31).
4. François (2009, 2016).
5. François (2015).
6. François (2005): 489-502; 2013).
7. This syllable-reduction process can be dated sometime within the last 1000 years, as evidenced by Polynesian loans such as MTPTooltip Mwotlap language /kumaj/, VRSTooltip Vurës language /komar/ < *kumara "sweet potato"; that vegetable, together with its name (originally, a likely loan from languages of South America), was brought to Vanuatu by the relatively recent expansion that gave rise to Polynesian outliers.
8. François (2015:190).
9. François (2005: 462-5).
10. François (2011:) 149-151).
11. Cases such as POc *saqat "bad" > LHITooltip Lehali language /sæt/ can be explained by the addition of a paragogic vowel in PTB (François 2005: 479-480); thus POc *saqat "bad" > *saqat-i > PTB *sati > LHITooltip Lehali language /sæt/.
12. See p.596 of: Ross, Malcolm D.; Osmond, Meredith (2016). "Describing people: stature, temperament, emotion and evaluation". In Ross, Malcolm D.; Pawley, Andrew K.; Osmond, Meredith (eds.). The lexicon of Proto-Oceanic. People: Body and mind (PDF). A-PL. Vol. 5. Canberra: Asia–Pacific Linguistics. pp. 567–599..
13. François (2013).
14. François (2005: 461).
15. See the inventory of Lo-Toga phonemes in the presentation of the Lo-Toga corpus (Pangloss Collection).
16. François (2016): 35).

References

• François, Alexandre (2005), "Unraveling the history of the vowels of seventeen northern Vanuatu languages" (PDF), Oceanic Linguistics, 44 (2): 443–504, doi:10.1353/ol.2005.0034, S2CID 131668754
• François, Alexandre (2009), "Verbal aspect and personal pronouns: The history of aorist markers in north Vanuatu" (PDF), in Pawley, Andrew; Adelaar, Alexander (eds.), Austronesian historical linguistics and culture history: A festschrift for Bob Blust, vol. 601, Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, pp. 179–195
• François, Alexandre (2011), "Where *R they all? The history and geography of *R loss in Southern Oceanic" (PDF), Oceanic Linguistics, 50 (1): 142–199, doi:10.1353/ol.2011.0009, S2CID 55766987
• François, Alexandre (2013), "Shadows of bygone lives: The histories of spiritual words in northern Vanuatu" (PDF), in Mailhammer, Robert (ed.), Lexical and structural etymology: Beyond word histories (PDF), Studies in Language Change, vol. 11, Berlin: DeGruyter Mouton, pp. 185–244, doi:10.1515/9781614510581.185, ISBN 978-1-61451-059-8
• François, Alexandre (2015). "The ins and outs of up and down: Disentangling the nine geocentric space systems of Torres and Banks languages" (PDF). In Alexandre François; Sébastien Lacrampe; Michael Franjieh; Stefan Schnell (eds.). The languages of Vanuatu: Unity and diversity. Studies in the Languages of Island Melanesia. Canberra: Asia-Pacific Linguistics. pp. 137–195. hdl:1885/14819. ISBN 978-1-922185-23-5.
• François, Alexandre (2016), "The historical morphology of personal pronouns in northern Vanuatu" (PDF), in Pozdniakov, Konstantin (ed.), Comparatisme et reconstruction : tendances actuelles (PDF), Faits de Langues, vol. 47, Bern: Peter Lang, pp. 25–60, doi:10.1163/19589514-047-01-900000003, S2CID 171459404