Proto-Northwest Caucasian language

Proto-Northwest Caucasian (sometimes abbreviated PNWC), also Proto-Adyghe-Abazgi or Proto-Adyghe-Abkhaz, is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Northwest Caucasian languages.

Proto-Northwest Caucasian
PNWC
Reconstruction of	Northwest Caucasian languages
Lower-order reconstructions	Proto-Abazgi Proto-Circassian

Phonology

Vowels

Proto-Northwest Caucasian, just like its descendants, had a very small vowel inventory, most commonly reconstructed as consisting of 2 vowels: /a/ and /ə/. Some degree of allophony might have existed, especially near labialized and palatalized (or both) consonants.

Some scholars assume that the rich consonantal distinctions appeared from a formerly rich vowel inventory, so **/Cy/ would result in */Cʷʲə/, **/Co/ in */Cʷa/ (or possibly /Cˤʷa/), and so on. However, this view is doubted due to the tendency of vowel systems to get richer over time, and the opposite being much more rare.

Consonants

There was a primary four-way distinction of almost all obstruents in Proto-Northwest Caucasian. The following variations have been proposed:

• Geminate /Cː/, plain /C/, ejective /Cʼ/ and voiced /C̬/;
• Unaspirated /C˭/, aspirated /Cʰ/, ejective /Cʼ/ and voiced /C̬/;
• Fortis /C͈/, lenis /C͉/, ejective /Cʼ/ and voiced /C̬/.

The only living descendants to have kept the 4-way distinction are the Shapsug and Bzhedug dialects. They both feature an unaspirated /C˭/, aspirated /Cʰ/, ejective /Cʼ/ and voiced /C̬/ distinction, where all the remaining languages have merged them to plain /C/, ejective /Cʼ/ and voiced /C̬/.

Additionally, there also were distinctions in labialization, palatalization and glottalization (and, depending on the analysis, aspiration), with combinations of those also possible, such as in case of /qˤʷʲː/.

			Bilabial					Alveolar				Post-alveolar		Alveolo-palatal		Palatal	Velar				Uvular
			Plain	Labialized	Labio- palatalized	Palatalized	Glottalized	Plain	Labialized	Labio- palatalized	Palatalized	Plain	Labialized	Plain	Labialized		Plain	Labialized	Labio- palatalized	Palatalized	Plain	Labialized	Labio- palatalized	Palatalized	Glottalized	Glottalized and labialized	Glottalized and labio-palatalized	Glottalized and palatalized
Plosive	Voiceless	Plain	p	pʷ	pʷʲ	pʲ	pˤ	t	tʷ	tʷʲ							k	kʷ		kʲ	*q	*qʷ	*qʷʲ			*qˤʷ	*qˤʷʲ	*qˤʲ
		Geminated	*pː			*pʲː	*pˤː	*tː	*tʷː									*kʷː			*qː	*qʷː	*qʷʲː	*qʲː	*qˤː	*qˤʷː	*qˤʷʲː	*qˤʲː
		Ejective	*pʼ		*pʷʲʼ	*pʲʼ	*pˤʼ	*tʼ	*tʷʼ	*tʷʲʼ							*kʼ	*kʷʼ	*kʷʲʼ		*qʼ	*qʷʼ	*qʷʲʼ	*qʲʼ	*qˤʼ	*qˤʷʼ	*qˤʷʲʼ	*qˤʲʼ
	Voiced		*b	*bʷ	*bʷʲ	*bʲ	*bˤ	*d	*dʷ								*ɡ	*ɡʷ	*ɡʷʲ	*ɡʲ	*ɢ	*ɢʷ	*ɢʷʲ	*ɢʲ
Affricate	Voiceless	Plain						*ts	*tsʷ	*tsʷʲ	*tsʲ	*tʃ	*tʃʷ	*tɕ	*tɕʷ
		Geminated						*tsː	*tsʷː		*tsʲː		*tʃʷː	*tɕː	*tɕʷː
		Ejective						*tsʼ	*tsʷʼ	*tsʷʲʼ	*tsʲʼ	*tʃʼ	*tʃʷʼ	*tɕʼ	*tɕʷʼ
	Voiced							*dz	*dzʷ	*dzʷʲ	*dzʲ	*dʒ	*dʒʷ	*dʑ
Fricative	Voiceless	Plain	*f					*s	*sʷ	*sʷʲ	*sʲ	*ʃ~ʃː	*ʃʷ	*ɕ	*ɕʷ		*x	*xʷ	*xʷʲ	*xʲ	*χ	*χʷ	*χʷʲ	*χʲ	*χˤ	*χˤʷ		*χˤʲ
		Geminated											*ʃʷː	*ɕː	*ɕʷː
	Voiced							*z	*zʷ	*zʷʲ	*zʲ	*ʒ	*ʒʷ	*ʑ	*ʷʑ		*ɣ		(*ɣʷʲ)?	*ɣʲ	*ʁ	*ʁʷ	*ʁʷʲ	*ʁʲ	*ʁˤ	*ʁˤʷ	*ʁˤʷʲ	*ʁˤʲ
Nasal			m				*mˤ	n
Sonorant							*w	*r			*rʲ					*j
Lateral fricative	Voiceless	Plain						*ɬ	*ɬʷ	(*ɬʷʲ)	*ɬʲ~ɬʲʼː
		Geminated						*ɬː	*ɬʷː
	Voiced									*ɮʷʲ	*ɮʲ
Lateral approximant								*l			*lʲ
Lateral affricate	Voiceless	Plain						*tɬ	*tɬʷ	*tɬʷʲ	*tɬʲ
		Geminated						*tɬː	*tɬʷː	*tɬʷʲː
		Ejective						*tɬʼ	*tɬʷʼ	*tɬʷʲʼ	*tɬʲʼ
	Voiced							*dɮ	*dɮʷ	*dɮʷʲ	*dɮʲ

Sound shifts

Proto-NWC	Proto-Abazgi	Ubykh	Proto-Circassian
*p
*pː	b	b	pː
*b
*pʼ
*f			xʷ
*w
*m
*pʲ	p	tʷ	t
*pʲː	b	(tʷ~dʷ)	tː
*bʲ	b	dʷ	d
*pʲʼ	pʼ	tʷʼ	tʼ
*pʷ	p	f	p
*bʷ	f	f	b
*pʷʲ	tsʲ	tʷ	–
*bʷʲ	dzʲ	dʷ	d
*pʷʲʼ	tsʲʼ	tʷʼ	tʼ
*pˤ	p	vˤ	p
*pˤː	–	bˤ	pː
*bˤ	b	bˤ	b
*pˤʼ	–	pˤʼ	pʼ
*mˤ	m	mˤ	m
*t
*tː	t		tː
*d
*tʼ
*r	r	d-, r~ʁ	tː-, r
*n
*rʲ	r	ɮ	dz
*tʷ		tʷ	t
*tʷː	d(ʷ)	tʷ	tː
*dʷ			d
*tʷʼ			tʼ
*tʷʲ	tʷ	–	ts
*tʷʲʼ	tʷʼ	tʷʼ	tsʼ
*ts			s~ts
*tsː	ts		tsː
*dz	dz		dz~z
*tsʼ
*s
*z	z	dz~z	z
*tsʲ			(s)
*tsʲː	dzʲ(?)	ts	tsː
*dzʲ			dz~z
*tsʲʼ			tsʼ
*sʲ			s
*zʲ	z	dzʲ~zʲ	z
*tsʷ			sʷ-
*tsʷː	tsʷ	tsʷ	tsʷː
*dzʷ		–	dzʷ
*tsʷʼ
*sʷ
*zʷ		dzʷ~zʷ	zʷ
*tsʷʲ	(tʃ)	–	tsʲ
*dzʷʲ	dʒ~ʒ	dʒʲ	dzʲ
*tsʷʲʼ	tʃʼ	tʃʲʼ	tsʲʼ
*sʷʲ	sʲ	tʃʷ	sʲ
*zʷʲ	dzʲ~zʲ	ʒʷ	zʲ
*tʃ	tsʲ	ts	s
*dʒ	dzʲ	dz	dz~z
*tʃʼ	tsʲʼ	tsʼ	tsʲʼ(?)
*ʃ(~ʃː)	sʲ	s	s
*ʒ	zʲ	z	z
*tɕ
*tɕː	dzʲ(~tɕ)	tɕ	tɕː
*dʑ			dʑ~ʑ
*tɕʼ
*ɕ	ʃ(?)	ɕ	ʃ
*ɕː	ʃ	ɕ	ʃː
*ʑ	ʒ	ʑ	ʒ
*j
*tʃʷ	tʃ	tʃ	tɕ
*tʃʷː	zʷ	tʃ	tɕː
*dʒʷ	dzʷ~zʷ	dʒ	dʑ~ʑ
*tʃʷʼ	tʃʼ	tʃʼ	tɕʼ
*ʃʷ	sʷ	ʃ	ʃ
*ʃʷː	ʃ	ʃ	ʃː
*ʒʷ	zʲ(?)	ʒ	ʒ
*tɕʷ	tʃ	tɕ	tʃ
*tɕʷː	dʒ~ʒ	tɕ	tʃː
*tɕʷʼ	tʃʼ	tɕʼ	tʃʼ
*ɕʷ	ʃʷ	ʃʷ	sʲ
*ɕʷː	ʃ	sʷ	ʃː
*ʑʷ	ʒʷ	ʒʷ	zʲ
*tɬ	x	ɕ	tɕ
*tɬː	ts	(sʲ)	tɕː
*dɮ	l	ɮ	tħ
*tɬʼ	x/tsʼ	tsʲʼ	tɕʼ
*ɬ	–	sʲ	ɕ
*ɬː	x	sʲ	ɕː
*l	l	d-, Ø~j	tħ-,ɮ
*tɬʲ	xʲ	ɕ	tɕ
*dɮʲ	ɣʲ	ʁ(~zʲ)	ɣ
*tɬʲʼ	ɕ	tɬʼ	tɬʼ
*ɬʲ (~ɬʲʼː)	ɕ	ɬ	ɬ
*ɮʲ	ʑ	ɮ	ɮ
*lʲ	r-, l~ɣʲ	ɮ	d-
*tɬʷ	tsʷ	tsʷ	tʃ
*tɬʷː	tsʷ	tsʷ	tʃː
*dɮʷ	l	w	ħ
*tɬʷʼ	tsʼ(ʷ)	tsʼ(ʷ)	tʃʼ
*ɬʷ	ʃ	sʷ	x(ʷ)
*ɬʷː	ʃ	s(ʷ)	ɕː
*tɬʷʲ	tʃʷ	f	x
*tɬʷʲː	ʒʷ	dʑ	tɕː
*dɮʷʲ	dʒʷ	dʒ	ɮ
*tɬʷʲʼ	tʃʷʼ	tsʼ	tɕʼ
*ɬʷʲ (~ɬʷː)	ʃ	ʃʷ	x(ʷ)
*ɮʷʲ	ʒ	ʒʷ	ɣʲ
*k	k	kʲ	kʲ
*ɡ	ɡ	ɡʲ	ɡʲ
*kʼ	kʼ	kʲʼ	kʲʼ
*x	x	ɕ	x
*ɣ	ɣ	ɣ~ʁ	ɣ
*kʲ	kʲ	–	kʲ
*ɡʲ	ɡʲ	–	ɡʲ
*xʲ	xʲ	sʲ	ɕ
*ɣʲ	ɣʲ	zʲ	ʑ
*kʷ
*kʷː	ɡʷ	ɡʷ	kʷː
*ɡʷ
*kʷʼ
*xʷ	xʷ	x	x(ʷ)
*ɡʲʷ	ɡʷ	ɡʲ 1	ɡʷ
*kʷʲʼ	kʷʼ	kʲʼ	kʷʲʼ
*xʷʲ	sʷ	xʲ	xʷ
*ɣʷʲ(?)	zʷ	ʁʲ	ʁʷ
*q	(ħ)	q	q-
*qː	q	q	qː
*ɢ	ɣ	ʁ	ʁ
*qʼ	qʼ	qʼ	qː
*χ	ħ	χ	χ
*ʁ	ʕ	ʁ	ʁ
*qʲː	q	qʲ	–
*ɢʲ	ɣʲ	ʁʲ	–
*qʲʼ	qʲʼ	qʲʼ	ʔ
*χʲ	ħ	xʲ	χʲ
*ʁʲ	ʕ	ʁʲ	ʁ
*qʷ	ħʷ	qʷ	qʷ-, qʷː
*qʷː	qʷ	qʷ	qʷː
*ɢʷ	ɣʷ	ʁʷ	ʁʷ
*qʷʼ	qʷʼ	qʷʼ	qʷː
*χʷ	ħʷ	χʷ	χʷ
*ʁʷ	ʕʷ	ʁʷ	ʁʷ
*qʷʲ	ħ(ʷ)	xʲ	qʷ-
*qʷʲː	–	qʲ	qʷː
*ɢʷʲ	ɣ(ʷ)	ʁʲ	ʁʷ
*qʷʲʼ	ʕʷ(qʷʼ?)	qʲʼ	ʔʷ
*χʷʲ	ħ(ʷ)	χʲ	χʷ
*ʁʷʲ	ʕ(ʷ)	ʁʲ	ʁʷ
*qˤː	ʕ	–	qː
*qˤʼ	ħ(?)	qˤʼ	qː
*χˤ	–	χˤ	χ
*ʁˤ	ʕ	ʁˤ	ʁ
*qˤʲ	q	q(ˤ)	ħ
*qˤʲː	ʔ	qʼ	ʔ
*qˤʲʼ	ħ	qʼ	ʔ
*χˤʲ	ħ	χ(ˤ)	ħ
*ʁˤʲ	ʕ	ʁ	j
*qˤʷ	ħʷ	χˤʷ	qʷ-
*qˤʷː	ʕʷ	qˤ(ʷ)	qʷː
*qˤʷʼ	qʷʼ(qʷ)	qˤʷʼ	qʷː
*χˤʷ	ħʷ	χˤʷ	χʷ
*ʁˤʷ	(ħʷ?)	ʁˤʷ	ʁʷ
*qˤʷʲ	qʷ	χʷ	ħ
*qˤʷʲː	ʕʷ	qʷʼ	ʔʷ
*qˤʷʲʼ	ħʷ	qʷʼ	ʔʷ
*ʁˤʷʲ	ʕʷ	w	w~ʁʷ

1. In Circassian and Abkhaz, gʷǝ is heart and in Ubykh it's gʲǝ.

The most noticeable changes are:

• The uvular consonants (/χ/ /ʁ/ /χʷ/ /ʁʷ/) become pharyngeal consonants (/ħ/ /ʕ/ /ħʷ/ /ʕʷ/) in the Proto-Abazgi language.

Grammar

Numbers

English	Proto-NWC Schulze	Proto-NWC Colarusso	Proto-Abazgi	Abkhaz	Abaza	Ubykh	Proto-Circassian	Adyghe	Kabardian
One	za	–	za-kʼə	akʼə	zakʼə	za	zə	zə	zə
Two	tʼqʷʼa	tʼqʼo	ʕʷ-ba	ɥ-ba	ʕʷ-ba	tʼqʷʼa	tʷʼə	tʷʼə	tʷʼə
Three	λ:ə	(y-)x̂ə/a	χ-ba	χ-ba/x-ba	χ-ba	ʂa	ɕə	ɕə	ɕə
Four	pʼλʼa	–	pɕ-ba	pɕ-ba	pɕ-ba	pʼɬʼə	t͡ɬə	pɬʼə	pɬʼə
Five	sx̂ʷə	(w-/y-)ćx̂ə	χʷ-ba	χʷ-ba/xʷ-ba	χʷ-ba	ɕxə	txʷə	tfə	txʷə
Six	ɬʷə	(w-)x̂cə	tʃʷba?	f-ba	t͡s-ba	fə	xə	xə	xə
Seven	bδə	ɣə́	bəʑ-ba	bəʑ-ba	bəʑ-ba	blə	bɮə	blə	bɮə
Eight	–	(w-/y-)ɣə/a	aʕ-ba	aa-ba	aʕ-ba	ʁʷa	jə	jə	jə
Nine	bğʷʲə	ɣə́	–	ʑʷ-ba	ʒʷ-ba	bʁʲə	bʁʷə	bʁʷə	bʁʷə
Ten	bćʷʼə	(p-/w-)źə́/źá	–	ʑʷa-ba	ʒʷa-ba	ʑʷə	pʃʼə	pʃʼə	pɕʼə

Vocabulary

English	Proto-NWC	Proto-Abazgi	Abkhaz	Abaza	Ubykh	Proto-Circassian	Adyghe	Kabardian
I	–	sa/sarˈa	sa/sarˈa	sa/sarˈa	səsan	sa	sa	sa
Heart	ɡʲʷə	ɡʷə	ɡʷə	ɡʷə	ɡʲə	ɡʷə	ɡʷə	ɡʷə
Sea	–	–	–	–	ɕʷa	xə	xə	xə
They sell it	–	–	–	–	aːɕan	–	jaːɕan	jaːɕan
I go	–	–	–	–	skʲʼan	skʷʼan	skʷʼan	skʷʼan
I say	–	–	–	–	sqʼan	–	sʔʷan	sʔʷan
Language/tongue	bǝźA	bzǝ	aːbz	bzǝ	bza	bza	bza	bza
Red	–	–	–	–	pɬə	pɬəʑ	pɬəʑ	pɬəʑ
Book, Letter	–	–	–	–	txəɬ	txəɬ	txəɬ	txəɬ
top of the back	–	–	–	–	txə	txə	txə	txə
Ox	c:ʷǝ	t͡sʷə	á-ć̌	t͡ʃʷə	t͡sʷə	t͡sʷːə	t͡sʷə, t͡ʃʷə	və
Blood	–	–	–	–	ɬa	ɬə	ɬə	ɬə
Month/Moon	–	–	aːmza	məzə	məʒa	maːza	maːza	maːza
Beard	–	–	–	–	ʒaːkʲʼa	ʒaːkʲʼa	ʒaːt͡ʃʼa	ʒaːt͡ʃʼa
Dust	–	–	–	–	saːpa	saːpa	saːpa	saːba
Barefoot	–	–	–	–	ɬapsʼə	ɬapsʼa	ɬapt͡sʼa	ɬapt͡sʼa
Donkey	–	–	–	–	t͡ʃədə	ʃədə	ʃədə	ʃədə
Hedgehog	–	–	–	–	pəzʲə	pəʐ	pəʐ	–
Water	–	–	–	–	bzə	psə	psə	psə
Fault	–	–	–	–	laːʑa	laːʑa	laːʑa	laːʑa
House	ʁ́Iʷǝna	–	–	ʕʷna	–	wəna	wəna	wəna
Mother	(a)nǝ	(a)nǝ	á-n	anǝ	na	aːna	nə	aːna
Father	(a)ṕ:ǝ	ab	ab	aba	tʷǝ	at:a	tǝ	aːda
heavy	anǝTa	xanǝta	á-χ́anta	χ́anta	–	want:aʁʷ	wantaʁʷ	wandaʁʷ
cattle-shed	anǝTa	bawǝ-ra	bora	a-bóra, -bówra	bow	–	–	bow
guest	–	–	–	–	pč̣́a	ħa-č̣́á	ħaṣ́a	ħāč̣́a
mountain / hill	bǝɣA	–	bʁa	–	–	bɣǝ	bɣǝ	bɣǝ
measles / scarlet fever / navel	bǝč̣́ǝ	bǝč̣́ǝ	a-bč̣́ǝ́	bč̣́ǝ	bǝč̣́ǝ́	–	nǝbǝǯ́	bǝnža
dust / bubble / blister	bǝbǝ	–	á-bǝb	–	–	psǝ-bǝb	psǝ-bǝb	psǝ-bǝb

See also

• Proto-Circassian language
• Proto-Abazgi language