Presidential elections in the Philippines

This list of presidential elections in the Philippines includes election results of both presidential and vice presidential elections since 1899 with the candidates' political party and their corresponding percentage.

The offices of the president and vice president are elected separately; hence a voter may split their vote. The candidate with the highest number of votes wins the position.

There had been 17 direct presidential elections in history: 1935, 1941, 1946, 1949, 1953, 1957, 1961, 1965, 1969, 1981, 1986, 1992, 1998, 2004, 2010, 2016 and 2022. When referring to "presidential elections", these 17 are usually the ones being referred to. All of these also included vice presidential elections, except for 1981.

There had also been two indirect elections: 1899 and 1943. Both were elected by the legislature (The Malolos Congress in 1899 and the National Assembly in 1943), and both resulted in unanimous and uncontested votes.

There had been two presidential referendums, in July 1973 and 1977. All in all, there had been 21 presidential ballots in Philippine history.

Since 1992, the elections have been held on the second Monday of May and every six years thereafter. The next presidential and vice presidential elections are in May 2028.

History

During the Philippine Revolution, several leadership elections for the Katipunan were later on described as precursors of presidential elections. One example of this is the Tejeros Convention of 1897, where Emilio Aguinaldo successfully removed erstwhile Katipunan leader Andres Bonifacio. From that point on, it was Aguinaldo who would lead the revolution, declare independence from Spain, and convened the Malolos Congress. The Malolos Congress elected Aguinaldo as president on January 1, 1899, passed a constitution on January 22, and Aguinaldo and the First Republic was inaugurated on January 23, 1899. The First Republic existed until Aguinaldo's capture by the Americans on March 23, 1901.

The first presidential election by popular vote was on September 15, 1935, after the ratification of the 1935 Constitution of the Philippines; Manuel Quezon of the Nacionalista Party emerged as the victor, defeating previous president Emilio Aguinaldo (Aguinaldo was elected president by the Malolos Congress). As a commonwealth then of the United States, the constitution decreed that the president shall have one term of six years without reelection. In 1940, it was amended to allow one reelection, but with the term shortened to four years; this setup was first used in the second election in 1941 with Quezon being reelected.

However, World War II intervened and thus suspended the elections of 1945. The Empire of Japan set up the Second Philippine Republic that elected José P. Laurel as president by the National Assembly in 1943. After the Japanese were defeated, Congress rescheduled the much-delayed election in 1946. Manuel Roxas of the newly formed Liberal Party won the election a few weeks prior to the granting of independence by the United States. In 1949, the first election for the newly independent republic was held with President Elpidio Quirino winning; Quirino succeeded Roxas, who died while in office. Thereafter, elections were held every four years every second Tuesday of November of the election year, with the winning president and vice president inaugurated on December 30 succeeding the election. The alternation between the Nacionalistas and the Liberals characterized an apparent two-party system of the Third Republic.

In the operation of the 1935 constitution, there were nine presidential elections; excluding the first election where there were no incumbents, the incumbent was beaten four times (1946, 1953, 1961, 1965), the incumbent won upon ascending to the presidency from a vacancy twice (1949, 1957), and two incumbents won a second term after being elected to a first term as president (1941, 1969).

In 1972, President Ferdinand Marcos declared martial law and ruled by decree. At this time, a new constitution was ratified in 1973 in which the office of the vice president being abolished. and that the president shall be elected by the National Assembly amongst themselves, although once elected, the president will cease to be a member of the National Assembly and any political party (similar to the British Speaker of the House of Commons). With the members of the National Assembly having no term limits, the president may serve indefinitely. Before parliament was elected referendums in 1973 and 1977 affirmed that Marcos will stay as president and prime minister even after parliament has been organized.

In 1981, via constitutional amendment, the president is again elected via popular vote, with a term of office of six years starting at the thirtieth of June of the year of the election. In the succeeding election on June 16, 1981 (third Monday of June); Marcos was again elected, with much of the opposition boycotting the election. In addition, the amendment also renamed the National Assembly into its Filipino translation as "Batasang Pambansa." In 1984, another amendment reinstated the office of the vice president. The election of the vice president is similar to the United States presidential election, in which a vote for the president is also a vote for the vice president, although this was later changed to a separate vote for each position. Marcos' Kilusang Bagong Lipunan (New Society Movement or KBL) won every presidential election of the Fourth Republic until 1986.

In 1986, Marcos called for an early or "snap" election (the next scheduled election was in 1987) and was, including his running mate Arturo Tolentino, declared the winners. The People Power Revolution erupted that drove Marcos out of power, and Corazon Aquino, the runner-up, assumed the presidency. A new constitution was ratified in 1987 that was essentially identical with the provisions of the amended 1973 constitution as long as the election of the president and vice president is concerned, with the presidential election occurring at the second Monday of May and the inauguration every June 30 of the election year. The 1992 election was the first election under the new constitution and elections are held every six years thereafter. Fidel V. Ramos won the 1992 election with just 23% of the vote, the lowest plurality in history; it also ushered in the multi-party system of the Fifth Republic. Thereafter, no winner has won via a majority, although each has had an increasing percentage of votes with every succeeding election. Joseph Estrada won in 1998 in what was described as landslide, getting just under 40% of the votes, while second place Jose de Venecia getting 16%. President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, who succeeded Estrada at the outcome of the 2001 EDSA Revolution, was the first sitting president to run, and defeated Fernando Poe, Jr. in the closest margin in history. Benigno Aquino III won in 2010 with 42% of the vote in what was also called as a landslide, defeating Estrada who had 26% of the vote, and seven others. Rodrigo Duterte won with just under 40% of the vote, but with a 14% margin of victory from second-placer Mar Roxas in 2016. In the 2022 election, under the Partido Federal ng Pilipinas (PFP), Bongbong Marcos won by a landslide and received nearly 59% of the votes, becoming the first to be elected by a majority since the establishment of the Fifth Republic in 1986.

In the operation of the 1987 constitution, incumbents who have in office for more than four years are barred to defend their seats, but all but one (1992) candidate endorsed by the incumbent lost, and one defended the seat after ascending to the presidency (2004).

Summary

Manner of election		Constitution	Term of service	Reelection	Election day	Inauguration	Elections implemented
President	Vice president
Majority of the members of the Malolos Congress	none	Malolos Constitution	Four years	None	January 1	January 23	1899
Popular vote	Popular vote	1935 Constitution	Six years	No	Second Tuesday of November	December 30	1935
Popular vote	Popular vote	1935 Constitution as amended	Four years	Once	Second Tuesday of November	December 30	1941, 1946, 1949, 1953, 1957, 1961, 1965, 1969
Majority of the members of the National Assembly	none	1943 Constitution	Six years	No	varies	December 30	1943
Majority of the members of the National Assembly	none	1973 Constitution	Six years	Unlimited	varies	"Not be later than three days after his proclamation by the National Assembly, nor in any case earlier than the expiration of the term of his predecessor"	None
Popular vote	none	1973 Constitution as amended	Six years	Unlimited	Second Tuesday of June	June 30	1981
Popular vote	Together with the president	1973 Constitution as amended	Six years	Unlimited	As provided by law	June 30	None
Popular vote	Popular vote	1973 Constitution as amended	Six years	Unlimited	As provided by law	June 30	None
Popular vote	Popular vote	Batas Pambansa Bilang 883	Six years	Unlimited	February 7, 1986	"Ten days after proclamation by the Batasang Pambansa" (February 25, 1986)	1986
Popular vote	Popular vote	1987 Constitution	Six years	No for the incumbent president	Second Monday of May	June 30	1992, 1998, 2004, 2010, 2016, 2022

Results summary

• Boldface: Incumbent
• Italics: Nominee of the ruling party, or supported by the incumbent
• Only candidates from third parties whose votes surpassed the margin between the winner and the best loser are included.

Year	Type	President-elect	Incumbent won?	Total candidates	Vice president-elect	Incumbent won?	Total candidates	Winners came from the same ticket?
1899	Indirect	Emilio Aguinaldo	—	1	—	—	—	—
1935	Direct	Manuel L. Quezon	—	3	Sergio Osmeña	—	3	Yes
1941	Direct	Manuel L. Quezon	Yes	8	Sergio Osmeña	Yes	5	Yes
1943	Indirect	Jose P. Laurel	—	1	—	—	—	—
1946	Direct	Manuel Roxas	No	3	Elpidio Quirino	—	3	Yes
1949	Direct	Elpidio Quirino	Yes	3	Fernando Lopez	—	3	Yes
1953	Direct	Ramon Magsaysay	No	3	Carlos P. Garcia	No	2	Yes
1957	Direct	Carlos P. Garcia	Yes	7	Diosdado Macapagal	—	5	No
1961	Direct	Diosdado Macapagal	No	6	Emmanuel Pelaez	No	4	Yes
1965	Direct	Ferdinand Marcos	No	12	Fernando Lopez	No	6	Yes
1969	Direct	Ferdinand Marcos	Yes	12	Fernando Lopez	Yes	4	Yes
1973	Referendum	Ferdinand Marcos	Yes	—	—	—	—	—
1977	Referendum	Ferdinand Marcos	Yes	—	—	—	—	—
1981	Direct	Ferdinand Marcos	Yes	13	—	—	—	—
1986	Direct	Ferdinand Marcos	Yes	4	Arturo Tolentino	—	4	Yes
1992	Direct	Fidel V. Ramos	No	7	Joseph Estrada	No	7	No
1998	Direct	Joseph Estrada	No	10	Gloria Macapagal Arroyo	No	9	No
2004	Direct	Gloria Macapagal Arroyo	Yes	5	Noli de Castro	No	4	Yes
2010	Direct	Benigno Aquino III	No	9	Jejomar Binay	No	8	No
2016	Direct	Rodrigo Duterte	No	5	Leni Robredo	No	6	No
2022	Direct	Bongbong Marcos	No	10	Sara Duterte	No	9	Yes

For president

Year	President-elect			Losing candidates*						Valid votes
	Candidate	Votes	%	Candidate	Votes	%	Candidate(s)	Votes	%
1935	Manuel L. Quezon	695,332	67.99%	Emilio Aguinaldo	179,349	17.53%	2 others	148,168	14.49%	1,022,849
1941	Manuel L. Quezon	1,340,320	80.14%	Juan Sumulong	298,608	17.85%	6 others	33,278	1.99%	1,638,928
1946	Manuel Roxas	1,333,392	53.93%	Sergio Osmeña	1,051,243	45.72%	1 other	8,538	0.35%	2,471,538
1949	Elpidio Quirino	1,803,808	50.93%	Jose P. Laurel	1,318,330	37.22%	1 other	419,890	11.85%	3,542,018
1953	Ramon Magsaysay	2,912,992	68.90%	Elpidio Quirino	1,313,991	31.08%	1 other	736	0.02%	4,227,719
1957	Carlos P. Garcia	2,072,257	41.28%	José Yulo	1,386,829	27.62%	Manuel Manahan	1,049,420	20.90%	5,020,204
							4 others	511,698	10.19%
1961	Diosdado Macapagal	3,554,840	55.05%	Carlos P. Garcia	2,902,996	44.95%	4 others	11	<0.01%	6,457,817
1965	Ferdinand Marcos	3,861,324	51.94%	Diosdado Macapagal	3,187,752	42.88%	10 others	385,355	5.18%	7,434,431
1969	Ferdinand Marcos	5,017,343	61.47%	Sergio Osmeña Jr.	3,143,122	38.51%	10 others	1,339	0.02%	8,061,804
1973 referendum	Ferdinand Marcos ("yes")	17,653,200	90.67%	"No"	1,856,744	9.33%				19,908,760
1977 referendum	Ferdinand Marcos ("yes")	20,062,782	89.27%	"No"	2,104,209	9.37%				24,094,227
1981	Ferdinand Marcos	18,309,360	88.02%	Alejo Santos	1,716,449	8.25%	11 others	775,594	3.73%	20,801,403
1986	Ferdinand Marcos	10,807,197	53.62%	Corazon Aquino	9,291,761	46.10%	2 others	57,693	0.29%	20,156,606
1992	Fidel V. Ramos	5,342,521	23.58%	Miriam Defensor Santiago	4,468,173	19.72%	Danding Cojuangco	4,116,376	18.17%	22,654,195
							Ramon Mitra Jr.	3,316,661	14.64%
							Imelda Marcos	2,338,294	10.32%
							Jovito Salonga	2,302,124	10.16%
							1 other	770,046	3.40%
1998	Joseph Estrada	10,722,295	39.86%	Jose de Venecia Jr.	4,258,483	15.87%	8 others	11,911,758	44.28%	26,902,536
2004	Gloria Macapagal Arroyo	12,905,808	39.99%	Fernando Poe Jr.	11,782,232	36.51%	Panfilo Lacson	3,510,080	10.88%	32,269,100
							Raul Roco	2,082,762	6.45%
							Eddie Villanueva	1,988,218	6.16%
2010	Benigno Aquino III	15,208,678	42.08%	Joseph Estrada	9,487,837	26.25%	7 others	11,442,587	31.66%	36,139,102
2016	Rodrigo Duterte	16,601,997	39.01%	Mar Roxas	9,978,175	23.45%	Grace Poe	9,100,991	21.39%	42,552,835
							2 others	6,871,672	16.15%
2022	Bongbong Marcos	31,629,783	58.77%	Leni Robredo	15,035,773	27.94%	8 others	7,149,928	13.28%	53,815,484

For vice president

Year	Vice president-elect			Losing candidates*						Valid votes
	Candidate	Votes	%	Candidate	Votes	%	Candidate(s)	Votes	%
1935	Sergio Osmeña	812,352	86.91%	Raymundo Melliza	70,899	7.59%	1 other	51,443	5.50%	934,694
1941	Sergio Osmeña	1,445,897	81.78%	Emilio Javier	124,035	7.90%	3 others	32,271	2.01%	1,569,932
1946	Elpidio Quirino	1,161,725	52.36%	Eulogio Rodriguez	1,051,243	47.38%	1 other	5,879	0.26%	2,218,847
1949	Fernando Lopez	1,741,302	51.67%	Manuel Briones	1,184,215	35.14%	1 other	444,550	13.19%	3,370,067
1953	Carlos P. Garcia	2,515,265	62.90%	José Yulo	1,483,802	37.10%				3,999,067
1957	Diosdado Macapagal	2,189,197	46.55%	Jose Laurel Jr.	1,783,012	37.92%	3 others	730,269	15.53%	4,702,478
1961	Emmanuel Pelaez	2,394,400	37.57%	Sergio Osmeña Jr.	2,190,424	34.37%	Gil Puyat	1,787,987	28.06%	6,372,813
							1 other	2	<0.01%
1965	Fernando Lopez	3,531,550	51.94%	Gerardo Roxas	3,504,826	48.11%	Manuel Manahan	247,426	3.40%	7,284,811
							3 others	1,009	0.01%
1969	Fernando Lopez	5,001,737	62.75%	Genaro Magsaysay	2,968,526	37.24%	2 others	390	<0.01%	7,970,653
1986	Arturo Tolentino	10,134,130	50.66%	Salvador Laurel	9,173,105	45.85%	2 others	698,159	3.49%	20,005,394
1992	Joseph Estrada	6,739,738	33.01%	Marcelo Fernan	4,438,494	21.74%	Lito Osmeña	3,362,467	16.47%	22,654,195
							Ramon Magsaysay Jr.	2,900,556	14.20%
							3 others	2,978,914	14.59%
1998	Gloria Macapagal Arroyo	12,667,252	49.56%	Edgardo Angara	5,652,068	22.11%	7 others	7,239,949	28.32%	25,559,269
2004	Noli de Castro	15,100,431	49.80%	Loren Legarda	14,218,709	46.89%	Herminio Aquino	981,500	3.24%	30,322,884
							1 other	22,244	0.07%
2010	Jejomar Binay	14,645,574	41.65%	Mar Roxas	13,918,490	39.58%	Loren Legarda	4,294,664	12.21%	35,165,531
							Bayani Fernando	1,017,631	2.89%
							Edu Manzano	807,728	2.30%
							3 others	481,444	1.37%
2016	Leni Robredo	14,418,817	35.11%	Bongbong Marcos	14,155,344	34.47%	Alan Peter Cayetano	5,903,379	14.38%	41,066,884
							Francis Escudero	4,931,962	12.01%
							Antonio Trillanes	868,501	2.11%
							Gregorio Honasan	788,881	1.92%
2022	Sara Duterte	32,208,417	61.53%	Francis Pangilinan	9,329,207	17.82%	7 others	10,808,376	20.65%	52,346,000

Graphical

For president

Year	Result	Valid votes	Turnout
1935	68% 18% 14%	99%	—
1941	80% 18%	—	—
1946	55% 46%	90%	95%
1949	51% 37% 12%	99%	70%
1953	69% 31%	98%	77%
1957	41% 28% 21% 9%	98%	76%
1961	55% 45%	96%	79%
1965	52% 43% 5%	98%	76%
1969	61% 39%	98%	80%
1981	88% 8%	95%	81%
1986	54% 46%	97%	79%
1992	24% 20% 18% 15% 10% 10%	93%	76%
1998	40% 16% 14% 12% 9%	92%	87%
2004	40% 37% 11% 6% 6%	96%	76%
2010	42% 26% 15% 11%	95%	74%
2016	39% 23% 21% 13%	95%	81%
2022	59% 28% 7%	96%	83%

For vice president

Year	Result	Valid votes	Turnout
1935	87% 8% 6%	99%	—
1941	90% 8%	—	—
1946	53% 47%	85%	90%
1949	52% 35% 14%	94%	70%
1953	63% 37%	92%	77%
1957	46% 38% 8% 7%	92%	76%
1961	38% 34% 28%	95%	79%
1965	48% 48%	98%	76%
1969	63% 37%	97%	80%
1981	—	—	—
1986	51% 46%	97%	79%
1992	33% 22% 16% 14% 10%	84%	76%
1998	50% 22% 13% 9%	87%	87%
2004	50% 47%	90%	76%
2010	42% 40% 12%	92%	74%
2016	35% 34% 14% 12%	91%	81%
2022	62% 18% 16%	93%	83%

Incumbent president running for re-election

Based on the 1935 constitution, from 1935 to 1940, the incumbent president is eligible for one six-year term and cannot be reelected.

In 1940, a plebiscite approved an amendment that set a four-year term for a president, and that a president can be re-elected, but cannot serve for more than an amount of time that is worth two full terms (eight years).

In 1973, a plebiscite adopted a new constitution that abolished term limits, and set up a six-year term for the president.

In 1987, a plebiscite approved a new constitution that set a six-year term with no reelection for the incumbent. A vice president who became president cannot be elected as president if that person served as president for more than four years. As the incumbent president at that time was elected under the 1973 constitution, she was allowed to run anew but chose not to.

Year	Incumbent president	Eligible to run?	Ran for president?	Ran for another position?	Won?
1941	Manuel L. Quezon	Yes	Yes	—	Yes
1946	Sergio Osmeña	Yes	Yes	—	No
1949	Elpidio Quirino	Yes	Yes	—	Yes
1953		Yes	Yes	—	No
1957	Carlos P. Garcia	Yes	Yes	—	Yes
1961		Yes	Yes	—	No
1965	Diosdado Macapagal	Yes	Yes	—	No
1969	Ferdinand Marcos	Yes	Yes	—	Yes
1981		Yes	Yes	—	Yes
1986		Yes	Yes	—	Disputed
1992	Corazon Aquino	Yes	No	No	—
1998	Fidel V. Ramos	No	—	No	—
2004	Gloria Macapagal Arroyo	Yes	Yes	No	Yes
2010		No	—	Yes, congresswoman	Yes
2016	Benigno Aquino III	No	—	No	—
2022	Rodrigo Duterte	No	—	No	—

Every president who is eligible to run for president ran again, except in 1992 where Corazon Aquino did not run.

Vice presidents who became president upon vacancy of the latter office ran four times, and won as presidents in their own right in 1949, 1957 and 2004, and lost In 1946.

Incumbent vice president running for president

In 1946, 1949 and 1957, no vice president was in office due to the erstwhile officeholder becoming president upon death of the president, and that there was no constitutional mechanism to fill up the office upon vacancy.

In 1981, the constitution had by then abolished the office of the vice president. It was reinstated upon a plebiscite in 1984, and the vice presidency was first elected in 1986.

Year	Incumbent vice president	Ran for president?	Ran for vice president?	Ran for another position?	Did not pursue office?	Incumbent won election?
1941	Sergio Osmeña	No	Yes	—	—	Yes
1946	None	—	—	—	—	—
1949		—	—	—	—	—
1953	Fernando Lopez	No	No	Yes, senator	—	Yes
1957	None	—	—	—	—	—
1961	Diosdado Macapagal	Yes	—	—	—	Yes
1965	Emmanuel Pelaez	No	No	Yes, congressman	—	Yes
1969	Fernando Lopez	No	Yes	—	—	Yes
1981	None	—	—	—	—	—
1986		—	—	—	—	—
1992	Salvador Laurel	Yes	—	—	—	No
1998	Joseph Estrada	Yes	—	—	—	Yes
2004	Teofisto Guingona Jr.	No	No	No	Yes	—
2010	Noli de Castro	No	No	No	Yes	—
2016	Jejomar Binay	Yes	—	—	—	No
2022	Leni Robredo	Yes	—	—	—	No

Five vice presidents ran for the presidency after their vice presidential term ended. Two of them won, in 1961, beating the incumbent president, and in 1998. Three of them, in 1992, 2016, and 2022, lost. Two vice presidents ran for another office after their vice presidential term ended; both won: in 1953, the vice president ran and won for senator, finishing first, and in 1965 where the vice president ran for a seat in the House of Representatives. Two vice presidents defended the seat, with both succeeding in 1941 and 1969. Two vice presidents did not pursue other office after their vice presidential term ended.

Regional trends

Regional corridors

Political strategists have divided the country into several "corridors" that replicate or combine administrative regions, which in turn are mostly based from the main ethnic groups. In 1992, prior to the 1992 election, Luis Villafuerte outlined several "corridors" throughout the country, from north to south:^[1]

Corridor		Region/Province	Voters as of 2016	%	Map
	Solid North	Ilocos Region (minus Pangasinan), Cagayan Valley and Cordillera Administrative Region	4,072,629	7.49%
	Lingayen-Lucena corridor	Pangasinan (part of Ilocos Region), Central Luzon, Metro Manila and Calabarzon	21,634,173	39.80%
	Bicol corridor	Bicol Region	3,121,662	5.74%
	Panay corridor	Western Visayas	2,578,661	4.74%
	Negros corridor	Negros Island	2,449,204	4.51%
	Cebu-Bohol corridor	Central Visayas	3,590,044	6.60%
	Samar-Leyte corridor	Eastern Visayas	2,698,880	4.97%
	Northern Mindanao corridor	Northern Mindanao and Caraga	4,088,424	7.52%
	Zamboanga corridor	Zamboanga Peninsula	1,931,795	3.56%
	Davao corridor	Davao Region	2,659,704	4.89%
	Cotabato corridor	Soccsksargen and Maguindanao	2,720,435	5.00%
	Not mentioned by Villafuerte	Mimaropa and the rest of Bangsamoro	2,818,233	5.18%

Metro Manila as an opposition stronghold

Manila, and by extension, Metro Manila when it was created in 1975, has voted for the opposition candidate (or the opponent(s) of the incumbent's party) in the election.

This became apparent in the 1935 election, where it was thought that the opponents of the Nacionalista candidates (as this was the first election, the Nacionalistas were the ruling party of the insular territory) would beat them in Manila. The Nacionalistas still prevailed.^[2]

Election	Party of incumbent		Winner in Manila		Opposition won at Manila?
1941		Nacionalista		Nacionalista	No
1946		Nacionalista		Liberal	Yes
1949		Liberal		Nacionalista	Yes
1953		Liberal		Nacionalista	Yes
1957		Nacionalista		Liberal	Yes
1961		Nacionalista		Liberal	Yes
1965		Liberal		Nacionalista	Yes
1969		Nacionalista		Nacionalista	No

Election	Party of incumbent		Winner in Metro Manila		Opposition won at Metro Manila?
1981		KBL		KBL	No
1986		KBL		UNIDO	Yes
1992		Independent; incumbent supported Lakas candidate		PRP	Yes
1998		Lakas		LAMMP	Yes
2004		Lakas		KNP	Yes
2010		Lakas–Kampi		Liberal	Yes
2016		Liberal		PDP–Laban	Yes
2022		PDP–Laban; party supported PFP candidate		PFP	No

Bellwether provinces

See also: Bellwether

Since the creation of the province of Basilan, the province has always had the provincial winner be elected President. The national winner has always been the winner in Negros Oriental except in 1961 and 2016.

Election	National winner	Winner in Basilan	Basilan winner won nationally?	Winner in Agusan del Norte	Agusan del Norte winner won nationally?	Winner in Lanao del Sur	Lanao del Sur winner won nationally?
1935	Manuel L. Quezon	—		Manuel L. Quezon	Yes	Manuel L. Quezon	Yes
1941	Manuel L. Quezon			Manuel L. Quezon	Yes	Manuel L. Quezon	Yes
1946	Manuel Roxas			Manuel Roxas	Yes	Sergio Osmeña	No
1949	Elpidio Quirino			Elpidio Quirino	Yes	Elpidio Quirino	Yes
1953	Ramon Magsaysay			Ramon Magsaysay	Yes	Ramon Magsaysay	Yes
1957	Carlos P. Garcia			Carlos P. Garcia	Yes	Carlos P. Garcia	Yes
1961	Diosdado Macapagal			Carlos P. Garcia	No	Carlos P. Garcia	No
1965	Ferdinand Marcos			Diosdado Macapagal	No	Diosdado Macapagal	No
1969	Ferdinand Marcos			Ferdinand Marcos	Yes	Ferdinand Marcos	Yes
1981	Ferdinand Marcos	Ferdinand Marcos	Yes	Ferdinand Marcos	Yes	Ferdinand Marcos	Yes
1986	Corazon Aquino assumed presidency	Corazon Aquino	Yes	Corazon Aquino	Yes	Corazon Aquino	Yes
1992	Fidel V. Ramos	Fidel V. Ramos	Yes	Fidel V. Ramos	Yes	Fidel V. Ramos	Yes
1998	Joseph Estrada	Joseph Estrada	Yes	Joseph Estrada	Yes	Joseph Estrada	Yes
2004	Gloria Macapagal Arroyo	Gloria Macapagal Arroyo	Yes	Gloria Macapagal Arroyo	Yes	Gloria Macapagal Arroyo	Yes
2010	Benigno Aquino III	Benigno Aquino III	Yes	Benigno Aquino III	Yes	Benigno Aquino III	Yes
2016	Rodrigo Duterte	Rodrigo Duterte	Yes	Rodrigo Duterte	Yes	Rodrigo Duterte	Yes
2022	Bongbong Marcos	Bongbong Marcos	Yes	Bongbong Marcos	Yes	Faisal Mangondato	No

After the losing candidate won in Negros Oriental in 2016, the longest streak belongs to Agusan del Norte which had its provincial winner follow the national winner since the 1969 election; Lanao del Sur broke its streak when the losing candidate won there in 2022.

Home province as a stronghold

Candidates usually win their home provinces or cities and by extension, region, except when the province has two or more candidates as residents.

President

Bolded name indicates the national winner.

Election	Candidate	Home province/city of the candidate	Winner at the home province/city	Candidate won at home province/city?
1935	Manuel L. Quezon	Tayabas	Manuel L. Quezon	Yes
	Emilio Aguinaldo	Cavite	Emilio Aguinaldo	Yes
	Gregorio Aglipay	Ilocos Norte	Gregorio Aglipay	Yes
1941	Manuel L. Quezon	Tayabas	Manuel L. Quezon	Yes
	Juan Sumulong	Rizal	Manuel L. Quezon	No
1946	Manuel Roxas	Capiz	Manuel Roxas	Yes
	Sergio Osmeña	Cebu	Sergio Osmeña	Yes
1949	Elpidio Quirino	Ilocos Sur	Elpidio Quirino	Yes
	Jose Paciano Laurel	Batangas	Jose Paciano Laurel	Yes
	Jose Avelino	Samar	Jose Avelino	Yes
1953	Ramon Magsaysay	Zambales	Ramon Magsaysay	Yes
	Elpidio Quirino	Ilocos Sur	Elpidio Quirino	Yes
1957	Carlos P. Garcia	Bohol	Carlos P. Garcia	Yes
	Jose Yulo	Negros Occidental	Carlos P. Garcia	No
	Manuel Manahan	La Union	Jose Yulo	No
	Claro M. Recto	Quezon	Claro M. Recto	Yes
1961	Diosdado Macapagal	Pampanga	Diosdado Macapagal	Yes
	Carlos P. Garcia	Bohol	Carlos P. Garcia	Yes
1965	Ferdinand Marcos	Ilocos Norte	Ferdinand Marcos	Yes
	Diosdado Macapagal	Pampanga	Diosdado Macapagal	Yes
1969	Ferdinand Marcos	Ilocos Norte	Ferdinand Marcos	Yes
	Sergio Osmeña, Jr.	Cebu	Ferdinand Marcos	No
1981	Ferdinand Marcos	Ilocos Norte	Ferdinand Marcos	Yes
	Alejo Santos	Bulacan	Ferdinand Marcos	No
1986	Corazon Aquino	Tarlac	Corazon Aquino	Yes
	Ferdinand Marcos	Ilocos Norte	Ferdinand Marcos	Yes
1992	Fidel V. Ramos	Pangasinan	Fidel V. Ramos	Yes
	Miriam Defensor-Santiago	Iloilo	Miriam Defensor-Santiago	Yes
	Eduardo Cojuangco, Jr.	Tarlac	Eduardo Cojuangco, Jr.	Yes
	Ramon Mitra, Jr.	Palawan	Ramon Mitra, Jr.	Yes
	Imelda Marcos	Leyte	Imelda Marcos	Yes
	Jovito Salonga	Rizal	Miriam Defensor-Santiago	No
	Salvador Laurel	Batangas	Salvador Laurel	Yes
1998	Joseph Estrada	San Juan	Joseph Estrada	Yes
	Jose de Venecia, Jr.	Pangasinan	Jose de Venecia, Jr.	Yes
	Raul Roco	Camarines Sur	Raul Roco	Yes
	Emilio Osmeña	Cebu	Emilio Osmeña	Yes
	Alfredo Lim	Manila	Joseph Estrada	No
	Renato de Villa	Batangas	Renato de Villa	Yes
	Miriam Defensor-Santiago	Iloilo	Miriam Defensor-Santiago	Yes
	Juan Ponce Enrile	Cagayan	Juan Ponce Enrile	Yes
2004	Gloria Macapagal Arroyo	Pampanga	Gloria Macapagal Arroyo	Yes
	Fernando Poe, Jr.	Manila	Fernando Poe, Jr.	Yes
	Panfilo Lacson	Cavite	Panfilo Lacson	Yes
	Raul Roco	Camarines Sur	Raul Roco	Yes
	Eddie Villanueva	Bulacan	Fernando Poe, Jr.	No
2010	Benigno Aquino III	Tarlac	Benigno Aquino III	Yes
	Joseph Estrada	San Juan	Benigno Aquino III	No
	Manny Villar	Las Piñas	Manny Villar	Yes
	Gilbert Teodoro	Tarlac	Benigno Aquino III	No
	Eddie Villanueva	Bulacan	Benigno Aquino III	No
2016	Jejomar Binay	Makati	Jejomar Binay	Yes
	Miriam Defensor-Santiago	Iloilo	Mar Roxas	No
	Rodrigo Duterte	Davao City	Rodrigo Duterte	Yes
	Grace Poe	San Juan	Rodrigo Duterte	No
	Mar Roxas	Capiz	Mar Roxas	Yes
2022	Ernesto Abella	Davao City	Bongbong Marcos	No
	Leody de Guzman	Rizal	Bongbong Marcos	No
	Norberto Gonzales	Bataan	Bongbong Marcos	No
	Panfilo Lacson	Cavite	Bongbong Marcos	No
	Faisal Mangondato	Lanao del Sur	Faisal Mangondato	Yes
	Bongbong Marcos	Ilocos Norte	Bongbong Marcos	Yes
	Jose Montemayor Jr.	Cavite	Bongbong Marcos	No
	Isko Moreno	Manila	Bongbong Marcos	No
	Manny Pacquiao	Sarangani	Manny Pacquiao	Yes
	Leni Robredo	Camarines Sur	Leni Robredo	Yes

Vice president

Election	Home province/city of the national winner	Winner at the home province/city of the national winner	National winner	National winner won at home province/city?
1935	Cebu	Sergio Osmeña	Sergio Osmeña	Yes
1941	Cebu	Sergio Osmeña	Sergio Osmeña	Yes
1946	Ilocos Sur	Elpidio Quirino	Elpidio Quirino	Yes
1949	Iloilo	Fernando Lopez	Fernando Lopez	Yes
1953	Bohol	Carlos P. Garcia	Carlos P. Garcia	Yes
1957	Pampanga	Diosdado Macapagal	Diosdado Macapagal	Yes
1961	Misamis Oriental	Gil Puyat	Emmanuel Pelaez	No
1965	Iloilo	Fernando Lopez	Fernando Lopez	Yes
1969	Iloilo	Fernando Lopez	Fernando Lopez	Yes
1986	Batangas	Salvador Laurel	Salvador Laurel	Yes
1992	San Juan	Joseph Estrada	Joseph Estrada	Yes
1998	Pampanga	Gloria Macapagal Arroyo	Gloria Macapagal Arroyo	Yes
2004	Oriental Mindoro	Noli de Castro	Noli de Castro	Yes
2010	Makati	Jejomar Binay	Jejomar Binay	Yes
2016	Camarines Sur	Leni Robredo	Leni Robredo	Yes
2022	Davao City	Sara Duterte	Sara Duterte	Yes

Results by popular vote margin

For president

Year	Winner	% of vote	% margin	Votes	Vote margin	Second place
2004	Gloria Macapagal Arroyo	39.99%	3.48%	12,905,808	1,123,576	Fernando Poe, Jr.
1992	Fidel V. Ramos	23.58%	3.86%	5,342,521	874,348	Miriam Defensor Santiago
1986	Ferdinand Marcos	53.62%	7.52%	10,807,197	1,515,436	Corazon Aquino
1965	Ferdinand Marcos	51.94%	9.06%	3,861,324	673,572	Diosdado Macapagal
1961	Diosdado Macapagal	55.05%	10.10%	3,554,840	651,844	Carlos P. Garcia
1946	Manuel Roxas	55.78%	11.80%	1,333,392	282,149	Sergio Osmeña
1957	Carlos P. Garcia	41.28%	13.66%	2,072,257	685,428	José Yulo
1949	Elpidio Quirino	50.93%	13.71%	1,803,808	485,478	José P. Laurel
2016	Rodrigo Duterte	39.01%	15.56%	16,601,997	6,623,822	Mar Roxas
2010	Benigno Aquino III	42.08%	15.83%	15,208,678	5,720,841	Joseph Estrada
1969	Ferdinand Marcos	61.47%	22.96%	5,017,343	1,874,221	Sergio Osmeña, Jr.
1998	Joseph Estrada	39.86%	23.99%	10,722,295	6,463,812	Jose de Venecia
2022	Bongbong Marcos	58.77%	30.83%	31,629,783	16,594,010	Leni Robredo
1953	Ramon Magsaysay	68.90%	37.82%	2,912,992	1,599,001	Elpidio Quirino
1935	Manuel L. Quezon	67.99%	50.45%	695,332	515,983	Emilio Aguinaldo
1941	Manuel L. Quezon	86.91%	79.33%	812,352	741,453	Juan Sumulong
1981	Ferdinand Marcos	88.02%	79.77%	18,309,360	16,592,911	Alejo Santos

For vice president

Year	Winner	% of vote	% margin	Votes	Vote margin	Second place
1965	Fernando Lopez	48.48%	0.37%	3,531,550	26,724	Gerardo Roxas
2016	Leni Robredo	35.11%	0.61%	14,418,817	263,473	Bongbong Marcos
2010	Jejomar Binay	41.65%	2.07%	14,645,574	727,084	Mar Roxas
2004	Noli de Castro	49.80%	2.91%	15,100,431	881,722	Loren Legarda
1961	Emmanuel Pelaez	37.57%	3.20%	2,394,400	203,976	Sergio Osmeña, Jr.
1986	Arturo Tolentino	50.65%	4.80%	10,134,130	961,025	Salvador Laurel
1946	Elpidio Quirino	52.36%	4.98%	1,161,725	110,482	Eulogio Rodriguez
1949	Fernando Lopez	52.19%	6.11%	1,341,284	157,069	Manuel Briones
1957	Diosdado Macapagal	46.55%	8.64%	2,189,197	406,185	José Laurel, Jr.
1992	Joseph Estrada	33.00%	11.27%	6,739,738	2,301,244	Marcelo Fernan
1969	Fernando Lopez	62.76%	25.51%	5,001,737	2,033,211	Genaro Magsaysay
1953	Carlos P. Garcia	62.90%	25.79%	2,515,265	1,031,463	José Yulo
1998	Gloria Macapagal Arroyo	49.56%	27.45%	12,667,252	7,015,184	Edgardo Angara
2022	Sara Duterte	61.53%	43.71%	32,208,417	22,879,210	Francis Pangilinan
1935	Sergio Osmeña	86.91%	82.86%	812,352	741,453	Raymundo Melliza
1941	Sergio Osmeña	92.10%	84.20%	1,445,897	1,321,862	Emilio Javier

Results per election

1899

1899 Philippine presidential election

← Nov 1897 1 January 1899 1935 →

Nominee Emilio Aguinaldo Party Nonpartisan Percentage 100.00%

President before election Emilio Aguinaldo Magdalo (as Alliance) Elected President Emilio Aguinaldo Nonpartisan

Emilio Aguinaldo was unanimously elected and voted president by the Malolos Congress on January 1, 1899. He was inaugurated on January 23, along with the First Philippine Republic.

1935

Main article: 1935 Philippine presidential election

In the first presidential election by popular vote, Quezon defeated former president Aguinaldo and Philippine Independent Church Supreme Bishop Gregorio Aglipay.

For President Candidate Party Votes % Manuel L. Quezon Nacionalista Party 695,332 67.98 Emilio Aguinaldo National Socialist Party 179,349 17.53 Gregorio Aglipay Republican Party 148,010 14.47 Pascual Racuyal Independent 158 0.02 Total 1,022,849 100.00

For Vice President Candidate Party Votes % Sergio Osmeña Nacionalista Party 812,352 86.91 Raymundo Melliza National Socialist Party 70,899 7.59 Norberto Nabong Republican Party[a] 51,443 5.50 Total 934,694 100.00 Member of the Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas carrying the Republican Party banner

1941

Main article: 1941 Philippine presidential election

President Quezon and Vice President Sergio Osmeña resoundingly defeated their opponents to stay in office.

For President Candidate Party Votes % Manuel L. Quezon Nacionalista Party 1,340,320 80.14 Juan Sumulong Popular Front (Sumulong Wing) 298,608 17.85 Celerino Tiongco I Partido Ganap de Filipinas 22,474 1.34 Hilario Moncado Partido Modernista 10,726 0.64 Hermogenes Dumpit Independent 298 0.02 Veronica Miciano Independent 62 0.00 Ernesto T. Belleza Independent 16 0.00 Pedro Abad Santos (withdrew) Popular Front (Abad Santos Wing) 0 0.00 Total 1,672,504 100.00

For Vice President Candidate Party Votes % Sergio Osmeña Nacionalista Party 1,445,897 90.24 Emilio Javier Popular Front (Sumulong Wing) 124,035 7.74 Pilar Aglipay Popular Front (Abad Santos Wing) 32,148 2.01 Pedro Yabut Independent 123 0.01 Emilio Aguinaldo (withdrew) Partido Modernista 0 0.00 Total 1,602,203 100.00

1943

Main article: 1943 Philippine presidential election

Jose P. Laurel was elected president unopposed by the National Assembly on September 25, 1943.

Candidate		Party	Votes	%
	Jose P. Laurel	KALIBAPI	108	100.00
Total			108	100.00
Valid votes			108	100.00
Invalid/blank votes			0	0.00
Total votes			108	100.00
Registered voters/turnout			108	100.00

1946

Main article: 1946 Philippine presidential election

In 1944, President Quezon died, thereby Vice President Osmeña succeeded him as president. By 1946, the ruling Nacionalista Party was split into two, with its liberal wing putting up its own candidate for president in the person of Manuel Roxas. Roxas defeated Osmeña in the election. Roxas's running mate Elpidio Quirino defeated Eulogio Rodriguez to win the vice presidency.

For President Candidate Party Votes % Manuel Roxas Nacionalista Party (Liberal wing)[a] 1,333,006 53.93 Sergio Osmeña Nacionalista Party[a] 1,129,994 45.72 Hilario Moncado Modernist Party 8,538 0.35 Total 2,471,538 100.00 Valid votes 2,471,538 95.17 Invalid/blank votes 125,342 4.83 Total votes 2,596,880 100.00 Registered voters/turnout 2,898,604 89.59 Source: Nohlen, Grotz, Hartmann, Hasall and Santos[3] The Nacionalista Party was split into two wings: those who supported Osmeña or the "conservative wing", and those who supported Roxas or the "liberal wing". The liberal wing eventually split off after the election and became the Liberal Party.

For Vice President Candidate Party Votes % Elpidio Quirino Nacionalista Party (Liberal wing)[a] 1,161,725 52.36 Eulogio Rodriguez Nacionalista Party[a] 1,051,243 47.38 Lou Salvador Modernist Party 5,879 0.26 Total 2,218,847 100.00 Valid votes 2,218,847 85.44 Invalid/blank votes 378,033 14.56 Total votes 2,596,880 100.00 Registered voters/turnout 2,898,604 89.59 Source: Nohlen, Grotz, Hartmann, Hasall and Santos[4] The Nacionalista Party was split into two wings: those who supported Osmeña or the "conservative wing", and those who supported Roxas or the "liberal wing". The liberal wing eventually split off after the election and became the Liberal Party.

1949

Main article: 1949 Philippine presidential election

President Roxas died in 1948. Vice President Elpidio Quirino succeeded him, and was elected president on his own right in 1949. His runnin running mate, senator Fernando Lopez won the vice presidential election.

For President Candidate Party Votes % Elpidio Quirino Liberal Party (Quirino wing)[a] 1,803,808 50.93 Jose P. Laurel Nacionalista Party 1,318,320 37.22 José Avelino Liberal Party (Avelino wing)[a] 419,890 11.85 Total 3,542,018 100.00 Valid votes 3,542,018 98.94 Invalid/blank votes 37,899 1.06 Total votes 3,579,917 100.00 Registered voters/turnout 5,135,814 69.70 Source: Nohlen, Grotz, Hartmann, Hasall and Santos[5] The Liberal Party was split into two wings: those who supported Quirino or the "Quirinitas" or the "Quirino wing", and those who supported Avelino or the "Avelinistas" or the "Avelino wing".

For Vice President Candidate Party Votes % Fernando Lopez Liberal Party (Quirino wing)[a] 1,741,302 51.67 Manuel Briones Nacionalista Party 1,184,215 35.14 Vicente Francisco Liberal Party (Avelino wing)[a] 444,550 13.19 Total 3,370,067 100.00 Valid votes 3,370,067 94.14 Invalid/blank votes 209,850 5.86 Total votes 3,579,917 100.00 Registered voters/turnout 5,135,814 69.70 Source: Nohlen, Grotz, Hartmann, Hasall and Santos[6] The Liberal Party was split into two wings: those who supported Elpidio Quirino or the "Quirinitas" or the "Quirino wing", and those who supported Jose Avelino or the "Avelinistas" or the "Avelino wing".

1953

Main article: 1953 Philippine presidential election

President Quirino was defeated by former Secretary of Defense Ramon Magsaysay in 1953 in a record margin post-independence. His running mate, senator Carlos P. Garcia also resoundingly defeated his opponent.

For President Candidate Party Votes % Ramon Magsaysay Nacionalista Party 2,912,992 68.90 Elpidio Quirino Liberal Party 1,313,991 31.08 Gaudencio Bueno Independent 736 0.02 Total 4,227,719 100.00 Valid votes 4,227,719 97.71 Invalid/blank votes 98,987 2.29 Total votes 4,326,706 100.00 Registered voters/turnout 5,603,231 77.22 Source: Nohlen, Grotz, Hartmann, Hasall and Santos[7]

For Vice President Candidate Party Votes % Carlos P. Garcia Nacionalista Party 2,515,265 62.90 José Yulo Liberal Party 1,483,802 37.10 Total 3,999,067 100.00 Valid votes 3,999,067 92.43 Invalid/blank votes 327,639 7.57 Total votes 4,326,706 100.00 Registered voters/turnout 5,603,231 77.22 Source: Nohlen, Grotz, Hartmann, Hasall and Santos[8]

1957

Main article: 1957 Philippine presidential election

President Magsaysay died in 1957 a few months before the election. His Vice President, Carlos P. Garcia succeeded him, and was elected president on his own right later that year. The opposition won the vice presidency, with Diosdado Macapagal defeating Jose Laurel Jr.

For President Candidate Party Votes % Carlos P. Garcia Nacionalista Party 2,072,257 41.28 José Yulo Liberal Party 1,386,829 27.62 Manuel Manahan Progressive Party 1,049,420 20.90 Claro M. Recto Nationalist Citizens' Party 429,226 8.55 Antonio Quirino Liberal Party (Quirino wing)[a] 60,328 1.20 Valentin de los Santos Lapiang Malaya 21,674 0.43 Alfredo Abcede Federal Party 470 0.01 Total 5,020,204 100.00 Valid votes 5,020,204 98.28 Invalid/blank votes 87,908 1.72 Total votes 5,108,112 100.00 Registered voters/turnout 6,763,897 75.52 Source: Nohlen, Grotz, Hartmann, Hasall and Santos[9] Quirino ran under his own wing of the Liberal Party, while the rest of the party supported Yulo's candidacy.

For Vice President Candidate Party Votes % Diosdado Macapagal Liberal Party 2,189,197 46.55 Jose Laurel Jr. Nacionalista Party 1,783,012 37.92 Vicente Araneta Progressive Party 375,090 7.98 Lorenzo Tañada Nationalist Citizens' Party 344,685 7.33 Restituto Fresto Lapiang Malaya 10,494 0.22 Total 4,702,478 100.00 Valid votes 4,702,478 92.06 Invalid/blank votes 405,634 7.94 Total votes 5,108,112 100.00 Registered voters/turnout 6,763,897 75.52 Source: Nohlen, Grotz, Hartmann, Hasall and Santos[10]

1961

Main article: 1961 Philippine presidential election

President Garcia was defeated by Vice President Diosdado Macapagal. This was the only election where the two top office-holders faced each other for the presidency. Macapagal's running mate Emmanuel Pelaez kept the vice presidency under the Liberal Party's hands.

For President Candidate Party Votes % Diosdado Macapagal Liberal Party 3,554,840 55.05 Carlos P. Garcia Nacionalista Party 2,902,996 44.95 Alfredo Abcede Federal Party 7 0.00 German P. Villanueva Independent 2 0.00 Gregorio L. Llanza Independent 2 0.00 Praxedes Floro Independent 0 0.00 Total 6,457,847 100.00 Valid votes 6,457,847 95.83 Invalid/blank votes 280,988 4.17 Total votes 6,738,835 100.00 Registered voters/turnout 8,483,568 79.43 Source: Nohlen, Grotz, Hartmann, Hasall and Santos[11]

For Vice President Candidate Party Votes % Emmanuel Pelaez Liberal Party 2,394,400 37.57 Sergio Osmeña Jr. Independent 2,190,424 34.37 Gil Puyat Nacionalista Party 1,787,987 28.06 Chencay Reyes Juta Dominion Status Party 2 0.00 Total 6,372,813 100.00 Valid votes 6,372,813 94.57 Invalid/blank votes 365,992 5.43 Total votes 6,738,805 100.00 Registered voters/turnout 8,483,568 79.43 Source: Nohlen, Grotz, Hartmann, Hasall and Santos[12]

1965

Main article: 1965 Philippine presidential election

President Macapagal got the nomination of the Liberal Party. This led to Senator Ferdinand Marcos to abandon the party in favor of the Nacionalistas. Marcos and his running mate former vice president Fernando Lopez defeated President Macapagal and Gerardo Roxas in the election.

For President Candidate Party Votes % Ferdinand Marcos Nacionalista Party 3,861,324 51.94 Diosdado Macapagal Liberal Party 3,187,752 42.88 Raul Manglapus Party for Philippine Progress 384,564 5.17 Gaudencio Bueno New Leaf Party 199 0.00 Aniceto A. Hidalgo New Leaf Party 156 0.00 Segundo Baldove Partido ng Bansa 139 0.00 Nic V. Garces People’s Progressive Democratic Party 130 0.00 German F. Villanueva Independent 106 0.00 Guillermo M. Mercado Laborer Party 27 0.00 Antonio Nicolas Jr. Allied Party 27 0.00 Blandino P. Ruan Independent 6 0.00 Praxedes Floro Independent 1 0.00 Total 7,434,431 100.00 Valid votes 7,434,431 97.69 Invalid/blank votes 175,620 2.31 Total votes 7,610,051 100.00 Registered voters/turnout 9,962,345 76.39 Source: Nohlen, Grotz, Hartmann, Hasall and Santos[13]

For Vice President Candidate Party Votes % Fernando Lopez Nacionalista Party 3,531,550 48.48 Gerardo Roxas Liberal Party 3,504,826 48.11 Manuel Manahan Party for Philippine Progress 247,426 3.40 Gonzalo D. Vasquez Reformist Party of the Philippines 644 0.01 Severo Capales New Leaf Party 193 0.00 Eleodoro Salvador Partido ng Bansa 172 0.00 Total 7,284,811 100.00 Valid votes 7,284,811 95.73 Invalid/blank votes 325,240 4.27 Total votes 7,610,051 100.00 Registered voters/turnout 9,962,345 76.39 Source: Nohlen, Grotz, Hartmann, Hasall and Santos[14]

1969

Main article: 1969 Philippine presidential election

President Marcos became the first president to defend the presidency on his first full term in 1969. Vice president Lopez won an unprecedented third vice presidential term.

For President Candidate Party Votes % Ferdinand Marcos Nacionalista Party 5,017,343 62.24 Sergio Osmeña Jr. Liberal Party 3,043,122 37.75 Pascual Racuyal Independent 778 0.01 Segundo Baldovi Partido ng Bansa 177 0.00 Pantaleon Panelo Independent 123 0.00 German Villanueva Independent 82 0.00 Gaudencio Bueno New Leaf Party 44 0.00 Angel Comagon Independent 35 0.00 Cesar Bulacan Independent 31 0.00 Espiridion Buencamino NP 23 0.00 Nic Garces Philippine Pro-Socialist Party 23 0.00 Benito Jose Independent 23 0.00 Total 8,061,804 100.00 Valid votes 8,061,804 98.28 Invalid/blank votes 140,989 1.72 Total votes 8,202,793 100.00 Registered voters/turnout 10,300,898 79.63 Source: Nohlen, Grotz, Hartmann, Hasall and Santos[15]

For Vice President Candidate Party Votes % Fernando Lopez Nacionalista Party 5,001,737 62.75 Genaro Magsaysay Liberal Party 2,968,526 37.24 Victoriano Mallari Partido ng Bansa 229 0.00 Modesto T. Jalandoni Philippine Pro-Socialist Party 161 0.00 Total 7,970,653 100.00 Valid votes 7,970,653 97.17 Invalid/blank votes 232,140 2.83 Total votes 8,202,793 100.00 Registered voters/turnout 10,300,898 79.63 Source: Nohlen, Grotz, Hartmann, Hasall and Santos[16]

1973 martial law referendum

Main article: 1973 Philippine martial law referendum

By 1972, President Marcos declared martial law. A year later, a plebiscite approved a new constitution that allowed the president to stay in power beyond 1973 as allowed by the previous (1935) constitution. A few months after that, another referendum asked voters if they wanted Marcos to stay in power beyond 1973:

Do you want President Marcos to continue beyond 1973 and finish the reforms he has initiated under the martial law?

Choice	Votes	%
Yes	17,653,200	90.67
No	1,856,744	9.33
Total votes	19,908,760	100.00

1977 presidential referendum

Main article: 1977 Philippine presidential referendum

In 1977, a referendum approved Marcos staying as president after the Interim Batasang Pambansa was organized a year later.

Do you vote that President Ferdinand E. Marcos continue in office as incumbent president and be prime minister after the organization of the Interim Batasang Pambansa in 1978?

Choice	Votes	%
Yes	20,062,782	89.27
No	2,104,209	9.37
Abstain	1,927,236	1.33
Total votes	24,094,227	100.00

1981

Main article: 1981 Philippine presidential election and referendum

In 1981, President Marcos won in an election that was boycotted by much of the opposition. His winning margin is a record, and his vote total has not been matched to date in a single-winner election.

Candidate		Party	Votes	%
	Ferdinand Marcos	Kilusang Bagong Lipunan	18,309,360	88.02
	Alejo Santos	Nacionalista Party (Roy wing)[a]	1,716,449	8.25
	Bartolome Cabangbang	Federal Party	749,845	3.60
	Delfin Manapaz	Independent	6,499	0.03
	Ursula Dajao	Independent	4,955	0.02
	Benito Valdez	Independent	4,224	0.02
	Lope Rimando	Independent	1,954	0.01
	Lucio Hinigpit	Sovereign Citizen Party	1,945	0.01
	Pacifico Morelos	Independent	1,740	0.01
	Jose Igrobay	Independent	1,421	0.01
	Simeon del Rosario	Independent	1,234	0.01
	Salvador Enage	Independent	1,185	0.01
	Florencio Tipano	Independent	592	0.00
Total			20,801,403	100.00
Valid votes			20,801,403	95.23
Invalid/blank votes			1,042,426	4.77
Total votes			21,843,829	100.00
Registered voters/turnout			26,986,451	80.94
Source: Nohlen, Grotz, Hartmann, Hasall and Santos[17]

1. Santos ran under Jose Roy's wing of the Nacionalista Party, while the rest of the party boycotted the election.

1986

Main article: 1986 Philippine presidential election

In 1986, President Marcos called for a special presidential election. He was proclaimed winner despite allegations of massive fraud, but was ousted by the People Power Revolution weeks later. The revolution installed Marcos's opponent, Corazon Aquino, as president and her running mate Salvador Laurel, as vice president.

For President Candidate Party Votes % Ferdinand Marcos Kilusang Bagong Lipunan 10,807,197 53.62 Corazon Aquino United Nationalist Democratic Organization 9,291,716 46.10 Reuben Canoy Social Democratic Party 34,041 0.17 Narciso Padilla Movement for Truth, Order and Righteousness 23,652 0.12 Total 20,156,606 100.00 Valid votes 20,156,606 97.30 Invalid/blank votes 559,469 2.70 Total votes 20,716,075 100.00 Registered voters/turnout 26,278,744 78.83 Source: Annex XXXVIII of the report by the International Observer Delegation

For Vice President Candidate Party Votes % Arturo Tolentino Kilusang Bagong Lipunan 10,134,130 50.66 Salvador Laurel United Nationalist Democratic Organization 9,173,105 45.85 Eva Estrada Kalaw Liberal Party (Kalaw wing)[a] 662,185 3.31 Roger Arienda Movement for Truth, Order and Righteousness 35,974 0.18 Total 20,005,394 100.00 Valid votes 20,005,394 96.57 Invalid/blank votes 710,681 3.43 Total votes 20,716,075 100.00 Registered voters/turnout 26,278,744 78.83 Source: Annex XXXVIII of the report by the International Observer Delegation Kalaw ran under her own wing of the Liberal Party, while the rest of party supported Laurel's candidacy.

1992

Main article: 1992 Philippine presidential election

Prior to the election, President Aquino announced that she won't be running, anointing Speaker Ramon Mitra Jr. as her preferred successor. She later changed her mind, and picked Secretary of Defense Fidel V. Ramos instead. Ramos narrowly defeated Agrarian Reform Secretary Miriam Defensor Santiago, who alleged fraud, Mitra and four others.

Joseph Estrada, who initially ran for president, slid down to become the vice presidential running mate of Danding Cojuangco and won.

For President Candidate Party Votes % Fidel V. Ramos Lakas–NUCD 5,342,521 23.58 Miriam Defensor Santiago People's Reform Party 4,468,173 19.72 Eduardo Cojuangco Jr. Nationalist People's Coalition 4,116,376 18.17 Ramon Mitra Jr. Laban ng Demokratikong Pilipino 3,316,661 14.64 Imelda Marcos Kilusang Bagong Lipunan 2,338,294 10.32 Jovito Salonga Liberal Party 2,302,124 10.16 Salvador Laurel Nacionalista Party 770,046 3.40 Total 22,654,195 100.00 Valid votes 22,654,195 93.40 Invalid/blank votes 1,600,759 6.60 Total votes 24,254,954 100.00 Registered voters/turnout 32,141,079 75.46 Source: Nohlen, Grotz, Hartmann, Hasall and Santos[18]

For Vice President Candidate Party Votes % Joseph Estrada Nationalist People's Coalition 6,739,738 33.01 Marcelo Fernan Laban ng Demokratikong Pilipino 4,438,494 21.74 Lito Osmeña Lakas–NUCD 3,362,467 16.47 Ramon Magsaysay Jr. People's Reform Party 2,900,556 14.20 Aquilino Pimentel Jr.[a] PDP–Laban 2,023,289 9.91 Vicente Magsaysay Kilusang Bagong Lipunan 699,895 3.43 Eva Estrada Kalaw Nacionalista Party 255,730 1.25 Total 20,420,169 100.00 Valid votes 20,420,169 84.19 Invalid/blank votes 3,834,785 15.81 Total votes 24,254,954 100.00 Registered voters/turnout 32,141,079 75.46 Source: Nohlen, Grotz, Hartmann, Hasall and Santos[19] Running mate of Jovito Salonga (Liberal Party)

1998

Main article: 1998 Philippine presidential election

President Ramos handpicked Speaker Jose de Venecia Jr. as his preferred successor. He was defeated by Vice President Joseph Estrada who had a healthy lead against de Venecia. In the vice presidential election, senator Gloria Macapagal Arroyo also had a clear advantage over Estrada's running mate senator Edgardo Angara.

For President Candidate Party Votes % Joseph Estrada Laban ng Makabayang Masang Pilipino 10,722,295 39.86 Jose de Venecia Jr. Lakas–NUCD–UMDP 4,268,483 15.87 Raul Roco Aksyon Demokratiko 3,720,212 13.83 Lito Osmeña PROMDI 3,347,631 12.44 Alfredo Lim Liberal Party 2,344,362 8.71 Renato de Villa Partido para sa Demokratikong Reporma–Lapiang Manggagawa 1,308,352 4.86 Miriam Defensor Santiago People's Reform Party 797,206 2.96 Juan Ponce Enrile Independent 343,139 1.28 Santiago Dumlao Kilusan para sa Pambansang Pagpapanibago 32,212 0.12 Manuel Morato Partido Bansang Marangal 18,644 0.07 Total 26,902,536 100.00 Valid votes 26,902,536 91.86 Invalid/blank votes[a] 2,383,239 8.14 Total votes 29,285,775 100.00 Registered voters/turnout 33,873,665 86.46 Source: Nohlen, Grotz, Hartmann, Hasall and Santos[20] Includes 232,714 votes for Imelda Marcos (Kilusang Bagong Lipunan) who withdrew after the ballots were printed.

For Vice President Candidate Party Votes % Gloria Macapagal Arroyo Lakas–NUCD–UMDP 12,667,252 49.56 Edgardo Angara Laban ng Makabayang Masang Pilipino 5,652,068 22.11 Oscar Orbos Partido para sa Demokratikong Reporma–Lapiang Manggagawa 3,321,779 13.00 Serge Osmeña Liberal Party 2,351,462 9.20 Francisco Tatad Grand Alliance for Democracy 745,389 2.92 Ismael Sueno PROMDI 537,677 2.10 Irene Santiago Aksyon Demokratiko 240,210 0.94 Camilo Sabio Partido Bansang Marangal 22,010 0.09 Reynaldo Pacheco Kilusan para sa Pambansang Pagpapanibago 21,422 0.08 Total 25,559,269 100.00 Valid votes 25,559,269 87.28 Invalid/blank votes 3,726,506 12.72 Total votes 29,285,775 100.00 Registered voters/turnout 33,873,665 86.46

2004

Main article: 2004 Philippine presidential election

In 2001, President Estrada was ousted via the 2001 EDSA Revolution due to massive corruption. Vice President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo succeeded him and was elected president on her own right in 2004 against Estrada's friend Fernando Poe Jr. Poe died later that year, and by 2005, the Hello Garci scandal erupted where Arroyo was seen to have benefitted from massive cheating in the election.

Senator Noli de Castro narrowly defeated senator Loren Legarda, who also alleged cheating.

For President Candidate Party Votes % Gloria Macapagal Arroyo Lakas–CMD 12,905,808 39.99 Fernando Poe Jr. Koalisyon ng Nagkakaisang Pilipino 11,782,232 36.51 Panfilo Lacson Laban ng Demokratikong Pilipino (Aquino wing)[a] 3,510,080 10.88 Raul Roco Aksyon Demokratiko 2,082,762 6.45 Eddie Villanueva Bangon Pilipinas 1,988,218 6.16 Total 32,269,100 100.00 Valid votes 32,269,100 96.30 Invalid/blank votes 1,240,992 3.70 Total votes 33,510,092 100.00 Registered voters/turnout 43,895,324 76.34 Lacson ran under the wing of the LDP led by Butz Aquino; the rest of the party supported Poe's candidacy.

For Vice President Candidate Party Votes % Noli de Castro[a] Independent 15,100,431 49.80 Loren Legarda Koalisyon ng Nagkakaisang Pilipino 14,218,709 46.89 Herminio Aquino Aksyon Demokratiko 981,500 3.24 Rodolfo Pajo[b] Partido Isang Bansa, Isang Diwa 22,244 0.07 Total 30,322,884 100.00 Valid votes 30,322,884 90.49 Invalid/blank votes 3,187,208 9.51 Total votes 33,510,092 100.00 Registered voters/turnout 43,895,324 76.34 Running mate of Gloria Macapagal Arroyo (Lakas–CMD) Running mate of Eddie Gil (Partido Isang Bansa, Isang Diwa) who was disqualified

2010

Main article: 2010 Philippine presidential election

Approaching the 2010 election, President Arroyo was deeply unpopular. Her Lakas Kampi CMD party nominated Secretary of Defense Gilbert Teodoro, but rumors persisted that she wanted Senator Manuel Villar to succeed her. In 2009, former president Aquino died, catapulting her son Senator Benigno Aquino III in the presidential race. Aquino defeated former president Estrada, Villar, Teodoro and several others in the election.

Estrada's running mate Makati mayor Jejomar Binay narrowly defeated senator Mar Roxas, the initial presidential nominee who slid down for Aquino.

For President Candidate Party Votes % Benigno Aquino III Liberal Party 15,208,678 42.08 Joseph Estrada Pwersa ng Masang Pilipino 9,487,837 26.25 Manny Villar Nacionalista Party 5,573,835 15.42 Gilbert Teodoro Lakas Kampi CMD 4,095,839 11.33 Eddie Villanueva Bangon Pilipinas 1,125,878 3.12 Dick Gordon Bagumbayan–VNP 501,727 1.39 Nicanor Perlas Independent 54,575 0.15 Jamby Madrigal Independent 46,489 0.13 John Carlos de los Reyes Ang Kapatiran 44,244 0.12 Total 36,139,102 100.00 Valid votes 36,139,102 94.73 Invalid/blank votes[a] 2,010,269 5.27 Total votes 38,149,371 100.00 Registered voters/turnout 51,317,073 74.34 Source: COMELEC Includes 181,985 votes for Vetellano Acosta (Kilusang Bagong Lipunan) who was disqualified after the ballots were printed.

For Vice President Candidate Party Votes % Jejomar Binay[a] PDP–Laban 14,645,574 41.65 Mar Roxas Liberal Party 13,918,490 39.58 Loren Legarda[b] Nationalist People's Coalition 4,294,664 12.21 Bayani Fernando Bagumbayan–VNP 1,017,631 2.89 Edu Manzano Lakas Kampi CMD 807,728 2.30 Perfecto Yasay Jr. Bangon Pilipinas 364,652 1.04 Jay Sonza[c] Kilusang Bagong Lipunan 64,230 0.18 Dominador Chipeco Jr. Ang Kapatiran 52,562 0.15 Total 35,165,531 100.00 Valid votes 35,165,531 92.18 Invalid/blank votes 2,983,840 7.82 Total votes 38,149,371 – Registered voters/turnout 51,317,073 74.34 Source: COMELEC Running mate of Joseph Estrada (Pwersa ng Masang Pilipino) Running mate of Manny Villar (Nacionalista Party) Running mate of Vetellano Acosta (Kilusang Bagong Lipunan) who was disqualified

2016

Main article: 2016 Philippine presidential election

In 2016, President Aquino's Liberal Party nominated former Secretary of the Interior and Local Government Mar Roxas (President Roxas's grandson) as their presidential candidate. Roxas had previously gave way to Aquino in 2010. Davao City Mayor Rodrigo Duterte had previously denied running for president, only to have him substituted as PDP-Laban's candidate. Duterte defeated Roxas and three others in the election.

In the vice presidential election, House Representative from Camarines Sur Leni Robredo narrowly defeated senator Bongbong Marcos.

For President Candidate Party Votes % Rodrigo Duterte PDP–Laban 16,601,997 39.02 Mar Roxas Liberal Party 9,978,175 23.45 Grace Poe Independent 9,100,991 21.39 Jejomar Binay United Nationalist Alliance 5,416,140 12.73 Miriam Defensor Santiago People's Reform Party 1,455,532 3.42 Total 42,552,835 100.00 Valid votes 42,552,835 94.61 Invalid/blank votes[a] 2,426,316 5.39 Total votes 44,979,151 100.00 Registered voters/turnout 55,739,911 80.69 Source: Congress Includes 25,779 votes for Roy Señeres (Partido ng Manggagawa at Magsasaka) who withdrew and died after the ballots were printed.

For Vice President Candidate Party Votes % Leni Robredo Liberal Party 14,418,817 35.11 Bongbong Marcos[a] Independent[b] 14,155,344 34.47 Alan Peter Cayetano[c] Independent[b] 5,903,379 14.38 Francis Escudero[d] Independent 4,931,962 12.01 Antonio Trillanes[e] Independent[b] 868,501 2.11 Gregorio Honasan United Nationalist Alliance 788,881 1.92 Total 41,066,884 100.00 Valid votes 41,066,884 91.30 Invalid/blank votes 3,912,267 8.70 Total votes 44,979,151 100.00 Registered voters/turnout 55,739,911 80.69 Source: Congress Running mate of Miriam Defensor Santiago (People's Reform Party) Nacionalista Party member running as an independent Running mate of Rodrigo Duterte (PDP–Laban) Running mate of Grace Poe (independent) Supporting Grace Poe (independent)

2022

Main article: 2022 Philippine presidential election

The ruling PDP–Laban was split into two factions heading into the election. The titular head of one faction, president Rodrigo Duterte, pushed for the presidential ticket of senator Bong Go and himself. Another faction pushed for the presidential candidacy of senator Manny Pacquiao. In the end, neither faction using the "PDP–Laban" label to avoid complications, with Bong Go ultimately withdrawing as a presidential candidate of Pederalismo ng Dugong Dakilang Samahan. Sara Duterte, the president's daughter, then ran as the vice presidential running mate of Bongbong Marcos, while the Liberal Party-led opposition chose vice president Leni Robredo as its standard bearer. The Marcos–Duterte ticket won in a landslide, and the first majority mandates in the Fifth Republic era.

For President Candidate Party Votes % Bongbong Marcos Partido Federal ng Pilipinas 31,629,783 58.77 Leni Robredo Independent[a] 15,035,773 27.94 Manny Pacquiao PROMDI 3,663,113 6.81 Isko Moreno Aksyon Demokratiko 1,933,909 3.59 Panfilo Lacson Independent[b] 892,375 1.66 Faisal Mangondato Katipunan ng Kamalayang Kayumanggi 301,629 0.56 Ernesto Abella Independent 114,627 0.21 Leody de Guzman Partido Lakas ng Masa 93,027 0.17 Norberto Gonzales Partido Demokratiko Sosyalista ng Pilipinas 90,656 0.17 Jose Montemayor Jr. Democratic Party of the Philippines 60,592 0.11 Total 53,815,484 100.00 Valid votes 53,815,484 96.05 Invalid/blank votes 2,213,371 3.95 Total votes 56,028,855 100.00 Registered voters/turnout 67,523,697 82.98 Source: Congress (vote totals); COMELEC (election day turnout, absentee turnout) Liberal Party member running as an independent Originally ran under Partido para sa Demokratikong Reporma; resigned from the party mid-way through the campaign. Still labeled as a Reporma candidate on the official ballots.

For Vice President Candidate Party Votes % Sara Duterte[a] Lakas–CMD 32,208,417 61.53 Francis Pangilinan[b] Liberal Party 9,329,207 17.82 Tito Sotto[c] Nationalist People's Coalition 8,251,267 15.76 Willie Ong Aksyon Demokratiko 1,878,531 3.59 Lito Atienza PROMDI 270,381 0.52 Manny SD Lopez Labor Party Philippines 159,670 0.31 Walden Bello Partido Lakas ng Masa 100,827 0.19 Carlos Serapio Katipunan ng Kamalayang Kayumanggi 90,989 0.17 Rizalito David Democratic Party of the Philippines 56,711 0.11 Total 52,346,000 100.00 Valid votes 52,346,000 93.43 Invalid/blank votes 3,682,855 6.57 Total votes 56,028,855 100.00 Registered voters/turnout 67,523,697 82.98 Source: Congress (vote totals); COMELEC (election day turnout, absentee turnout) Running mate of Bongbong Marcos (Partido Federal ng Pilipinas) Running mate of Leni Robredo (Independent) Running mate of Panfilo Lacson (Independent)

Results per province/city

Main article: List of Philippine presidential election results by province

References

1. Felipe B. Miranda and Alex Magno (co-discussants) (1992-02-21). "Strategies and Statistics: The Presidential Battle for Ballots". University of the Philippines Diliman.
2. "Coalition ticket wins by landslide, September 21, 1935". 21 September 1935. Retrieved 8 March 2014.
3. Dieter Nohlen; Florian Grotz; Christof Hartmann; Graham Hassall; Soliman M. Santos.
   Elections in Asia and the Pacific: A Data Handbook: Volume II: South East Asia, East Asia, and the South Pacific.
4. Dieter Nohlen; Florian Grotz; Christof Hartmann; Graham Hassall; Soliman M. Santos.
   Elections in Asia and the Pacific: A Data Handbook: Volume II: South East Asia, East Asia, and the South Pacific.
5. Dieter Nohlen; Florian Grotz; Christof Hartmann; Graham Hassall; Soliman M. Santos.
   Elections in Asia and the Pacific: A Data Handbook: Volume II: South East Asia, East Asia, and the South Pacific.
6. Dieter Nohlen; Florian Grotz; Christof Hartmann; Graham Hassall; Soliman M. Santos.
   Elections in Asia and the Pacific: A Data Handbook: Volume II: South East Asia, East Asia, and the South Pacific.
7. Dieter Nohlen; Florian Grotz; Christof Hartmann; Graham Hassall; Soliman M. Santos.
   Elections in Asia and the Pacific: A Data Handbook: Volume II: South East Asia, East Asia, and the South Pacific.
8. Dieter Nohlen; Florian Grotz; Christof Hartmann; Graham Hassall; Soliman M. Santos.
   Elections in Asia and the Pacific: A Data Handbook: Volume II: South East Asia, East Asia, and the South Pacific.
9. Dieter Nohlen; Florian Grotz; Christof Hartmann; Graham Hassall; Soliman M. Santos.
   Elections in Asia and the Pacific: A Data Handbook: Volume II: South East Asia, East Asia, and the South Pacific.
10. Dieter Nohlen; Florian Grotz; Christof Hartmann; Graham Hassall; Soliman M. Santos.
    Elections in Asia and the Pacific: A Data Handbook: Volume II: South East Asia, East Asia, and the South Pacific.
11. Dieter Nohlen; Florian Grotz; Christof Hartmann; Graham Hassall; Soliman M. Santos.
    Elections in Asia and the Pacific: A Data Handbook: Volume II: South East Asia, East Asia, and the South Pacific.
12. Dieter Nohlen; Florian Grotz; Christof Hartmann; Graham Hassall; Soliman M. Santos.
    Elections in Asia and the Pacific: A Data Handbook: Volume II: South East Asia, East Asia, and the South Pacific.
13. Dieter Nohlen; Florian Grotz; Christof Hartmann; Graham Hassall; Soliman M. Santos.
    Elections in Asia and the Pacific: A Data Handbook: Volume II: South East Asia, East Asia, and the South Pacific.
14. Dieter Nohlen; Florian Grotz; Christof Hartmann; Graham Hassall; Soliman M. Santos.
    Elections in Asia and the Pacific: A Data Handbook: Volume II: South East Asia, East Asia, and the South Pacific.
15. Dieter Nohlen; Florian Grotz; Christof Hartmann; Graham Hassall; Soliman M. Santos.
    Elections in Asia and the Pacific: A Data Handbook: Volume II: South East Asia, East Asia, and the South Pacific.
16. Dieter Nohlen; Florian Grotz; Christof Hartmann; Graham Hassall; Soliman M. Santos.
    Elections in Asia and the Pacific: A Data Handbook: Volume II: South East Asia, East Asia, and the South Pacific.
17. Dieter Nohlen; Florian Grotz; Christof Hartmann; Graham Hassall; Soliman M. Santos.
    Elections in Asia and the Pacific: A Data Handbook: Volume II: South East Asia, East Asia, and the South Pacific.
18. Dieter Nohlen; Florian Grotz; Christof Hartmann; Graham Hassall; Soliman M. Santos.
    Elections in Asia and the Pacific: A Data Handbook: Volume II: South East Asia, East Asia, and the South Pacific.
19. Dieter Nohlen; Florian Grotz; Christof Hartmann; Graham Hassall; Soliman M. Santos.
    Elections in Asia and the Pacific: A Data Handbook: Volume II: South East Asia, East Asia, and the South Pacific.
20. Dieter Nohlen; Florian Grotz; Christof Hartmann; Graham Hassall; Soliman M. Santos.
    Elections in Asia and the Pacific: A Data Handbook: Volume II: South East Asia, East Asia, and the South Pacific.