Spurious languages are languages that have been reported as existing in reputable works, while other research has reported that the language in question did not exist. Some spurious languages have been proven to not exist. Others have very little evidence supporting their existence, and have been dismissed in later scholarship. Others still are of uncertain existence due to limited research.
Below is a sampling of languages that have been claimed to exist in reputable sources but have subsequently been disproved or challenged. In some cases a purported language is tracked down and turns out to be another, known language. This is common when language varieties are named after places or ethnicities.
Some alleged languages turn out to be hoaxes, such as the Kukurá language of Brazil or the Taensa language of Louisiana. Others are honest errors that persist in the literature despite being corrected by the original authors; an example of this is Hongote, the name given in 1892 to two Colonial word lists, one of Tlingit and one of a Salishan language, that were mistakenly listed as Patagonian. The error was corrected three times that year, but nonetheless "Hongote" was still listed as a Patagonian language a century later in Greenberg (1987).[1]: 133
In the case of New Guinea, one of the most linguistically diverse areas on Earth, some spurious languages are simply the names of language surveys that the data was published under. Examples are Mapi, Kia, Upper Digul, Upper Kaeme, listed as Indo-Pacific languages in Ruhlen 1987; these are actually rivers that gave their names to language surveys in the Greater Awyu languages and Ok languages of New Guinea.[2]
Dubious languages
Dubious languages are those whose existence is uncertain. They include:
Spurious according to Ethnologue and ISO 639-3
Following is a list of ISO 639-3 language codes which have been retired since the standard was established in 2006, arranged by the year in which the actual retirement took effect; in most cases the change request for retirement was submitted in the preceding year. Also included is a partial list of languages (with their SIL codes) that appeared at one time in Ethnologue but were removed prior to 2006, arranged by the first edition in which they did not appear.
The list includes codes that have been retired from ISO 639-3 or languages removed from Ethnologue because the language apparently does not exist and cannot be identified with an existing language. The list does not include instances where the "language" turns out to be a spelling variant of another language or the name of a village where an already known language is spoken; these are cases of duplicates, which are resolved in ISO 639-3 by a code merger. It does include "languages" for which there is no evidence or which cannot be found. (In some cases, however, the evidence for nonexistence is a survey among the current population of the area, which would not identify extinct languages such as Ware below.)
SIL codes are upper case; ISO codes are lower case. Once retired, ISO 639-3 codes are not reused.[6] SIL codes that were retired prior to 2006 may have been re-used or may have reappeared as ISO codes for other languages.
Removed from Ethnologue, 12th ed., 1992
- Itaem (PNG) [ITM]
- Marajona (Brazil) [MPQ]
- Nemeyam (PNG) [NMY]
- Nereyama, Nereyó (Brazil) [NRY]
- Numbiaí (Orelha de Pau) [NUH]
- Oganibi (PNG) [OGA]
- Tijuana Sign Language (Mexico) [TJS] – added to Ethnologue 1988 by mistake due to a misunderstanding, removed in 1992. No evidence that it ever existed.
- Tyeliri Senoufo [TYE] – the Tyeliri are a caste of leather workers, and do not have their own language
- Wagumi [WGM]
- Zanofil [ZNF] – name of an ethnic group that speaks Yongkom [yon]
Removed from Ethnologue, 13th ed., 1996
- Bibasa (PNG) [BHE] – described as "isolate in need of survey" in the 12th ed.
Removed from Ethnologue, 14th ed., 2000
- Alak 2 [ALQ] – a mislabeled fragment of a word list[7]
- Dzorgai [DZI], Kortse [KBG], Pingfang [PFG], Thochu [TCJ], Lofuchai (Lophuchai) [LFU], Wagsod [WGS] – old names for Qiangic languages, some of uncertain correspondence to currently recognized names
- Hsifan [HSI] – an ethnic name for people speaking a variety of Qiangic or Jiarongic languages
- Scandinavian Pidgin Sign Language [SPF] – normal inter-language contact, not an established pidgin
- Wutana (Nigeria) [WUW] – an ethnic name
Removed from Ethnologue, 15th ed., 2005
- Jiji [JIJ][8]
- Kalanke [CKN][9]
- Lewada-Dewara [LWD], incl. Balamula/Mataru[10]
- Lowland Semang [ORB][11] (though other languages without ISO codes, such as Wila', are also called Lowland Semang)
- Mutús [MUF][12] – suspected to exist, e.g. by Adelaar 2005
- Nchinchege [NCQ][13]
- Nkwak [NKQ][14] – same as Tanjijili? Also a possible synonym for Kwak (retired in 2015)
- Oso (Southern Fungom) [OSO] – no evidence it is distinct from Fungom and Bum[15]
- Rungi [RUR][16]
- Wamsak [WBD][17]
Retired 2007
Retired 2008
- Amikoana (Amikuân) [akn][22]
- Land Dayak [dyk] – language family name, not individual language[23]
- Ware [wre][24] – Ware is listed as extinct in Maho (2009). When an SIL team in Tanzania were not able to find any evidence of it being spoken, the code was retired.
- Bahau River Kenyah [bwv], Kayan River Kenyah [knh], Mahakam Kenyah [xkm], Upper Baram Kenyah [ubm] – Any current use is likely either Mainstream Kenyah [xkl] or Uma' Lung [ulu]
- Amerax [aex] – prison jargon
- Garreh-Ajuran [ggh] (Borana & Somali)
- Sufrai [suf] – two languages, Tarpia and Kaptiau, which are not close[25]
Retired 2009
Retired 2010
Retired 2011
- Ayi (China) [ayx]
- Dhanwar (India) [dha]
- Mahei [mja]
Retired 2012
Retired 2013
- Malakhel [mld] – likely Ormuri
- Forest Maninka [myq] – generic
Retired 2014
Retired 2015
- Mator-Taygi-Karagas [ymt] – duplicate of Mator
- Yiddish Sign Language [yds] – no evidence that it existed[28]
- The [thx] – duplicate of Oy
- Imraguen (Mauritania) [ime]
- Borna (Eborna) [bxx] – perhaps a typo for Boma (Eboma)[29]
- Bemba [bmy] – a tribal name
- Songa [sgo] – a tribal name
- Daza [dzd] – retired in 2015 (with the reason "Nonexistent") but that decision was reversed in 2023, bringing [dzd] back[30]
- Buya [byy]
- Kakauhua [kbf] – Kakauhua/Caucahue is an ethnonym, language unattested – see Alacalufan languages
- Subi [xsj] – duplicate of Shubi [suj] but that decision was reversed in 2019, bringing [xsj] back[31]
- Yangho [ynh] – does not exist
- ǂKxʼaoǁʼae ("=/Kx'au//'ein") [aue] – dialect of Juǀʼhoan [ktz][32]
Retired 2016
- Bhatola [btl]
- Cagua [cbh]
- Chipiajes [cbe] – a Saliba and Guahibo surname
- Coxima [kox]
- Iapama [iap] – uncontacted, and likely one of the neighboring languages
- Kabixí [xbx] – generic name for Parecis, Nambiquaras, or any hostile group (see Cabixi language for one specific use)
- Runa [rna]
- Savara (Dravidian) [svr]
- Xipináwa [xip][33]
- Yarí [yri]
And several supposed extinct Arawakan languages of Venezuela and Colombia:
- Cumeral [cum]
- Omejes [ome]
- Ponares [pod] – a Sáliba surname, perhaps just Piapoco or Achagua[34]
- Tomedes a.k.a. Tamudes [toe]
Additional languages and codes were retired in 2016, due to a lack of evidence that they existed, but were not necessarily spurious as languages.
Retired 2017
Retired 2018
Retired 2019
Retired 2020
Retired 2021
Retired 2022
- Warduji [wrd][58]
- Pini [pii][59]
- Judeo-Tunisian Arabic [ajt] – duplicate of Tunisian Arabic [aeb][60]
Retired 2023
Retired 2024
- Mawa [wma] – listed in Ethnologue but SIL has no evidence it ever existed.
- Dek (Cameroon) [dek] – duplicate of Suma [sqm]
Spurious according to Glottolog
Glottolog, maintained at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, classifies several languages, some with ISO 639 codes, as spurious/unattested in addition to those retired by the ISO. These include:
| Language Name | ISO 639-3 | Details |
|---|---|---|
| !Khuai | Duplicate of ǀXam | |
| Adabe | adb | Dialect of Wetarese, taken for a Papuan language |
| Adu | adu | Duplicate of Okpamheri |
| Agaria | agi | all likely candidates in the area already have ISO codes |
| Ahirani | ahr | Khandeshi dialect |
| Anasi | bpo | Misidentification of Nisa |
| Arakwal | rkw | An ethnic group, not a language |
| Baga Kaloum | bqf | Should be subsumed into Koga variant |
| Baga Sobané | bsv | Should be subsumed into Sitemu variant |
| Bainouk-Samik | bcb | Split from Bainouk-Gunyuño due solely to national border |
| Bhalay | bhx | A caste rather than a language |
| Bubia | bbx | |
| Buso | bso | Duplicate of Kwang |
| Chetco | ctc | Indistinguishable from Tolowa |
| Chuanqiandian Cluster Miao | cqd | |
| Con | cno | |
| Gengle | geg | Mutually intelligible with Kugama |
| Gowlan | goj | A caste rather than a language |
| Gowli | gok | A caste, not a language |
| Guajajara | gub | Mutually intelligble with Tenetehara |
| Ihievbe | ihi | Ibviosakan dialect |
| Ir | irr | duplicate of Ong-Ir |
| Judeo-Berber | jbe | According to Glottolog, Jewish Berbers speak no differently than Muslim Berbers. However, there are claims, listed in the linked article, that this is not true. |
| Kang | kyp | |
| Kannada Kurumba | kfi | |
| Katukína | kav | Historical form of modern-day language, not considered distinct |
| Kayort | kyv | Duplicate of Rajbanshi |
| Kisankasa | kqh | |
| Kofa | kso | Duplicate of Bata |
| Kpatili | kpm | Purportedly the original language of the Kpatili people, who now speak Gbayi, but any such language is unattested |
| Kuanhua | xnh | Insufficient attestion; possibly Khmu |
| Kuku-Mangk | xmq | |
| Lama (Myanmar) | lay | Duplicate of Nung |
| Lambichhong | lmh | Yakkha language; name exists due to form errors |
| Lang'e | yne | |
| Laopang | lbg | Undocumented Loloish language |
| Loarki | lrk | Also covered under Gade Lohar (gda) |
| Lopi | lov | Undocumented Loloish language |
| Lumba-Yakkha | luu | Yakkha language; name exists due to form errors |
| Munda | unx | Duplicate of Mundari |
| Ndonde Hamba | njd | Dialect of Makonde language |
| Norra | nrr | Duplicate of Nung |
| Northwestern Fars | faz | all likely candidates in the area already have ISO codes |
| Odut | oda | Extinct and unattested Nigerian language |
| Old Turkish | otk | |
| Ontenu | ont | A place rather than a language |
| Phangduwali | phw | Yakkha language; name exists due to form errors |
| Pisabo | pig | Asserted to be both unattested and non-distinct by Glottolog |
| Pokangá | pok | Spurious misidentification of Waimajã |
| Potiguára | pog | Unattested language, Glottolog argues is likely Old Tupi |
| Puimei Naga | npu | Indistinct variety of one of the related languages |
| Putoh | put | |
| Quetzaltepec Mixe | pxm | |
| Rufiji | rui | |
| Skagit | ska | duplicate of Lushootseed |
| Snohomish | sno | duplicate of Lushootseed |
| Southern Lolopo | ysp | Confused entry duplicating either Lolopo or Miqie |
| Southwestern Nisu | nsv | Likely confused additional Nisu language (spoken in same locations as Southern Nisu) |
| Syerna Senoufo | shz | Should be subsumed into Sìcìté Sénoufo |
| Tawang Monpa | twm | Chinese and Indian name for Dakpakha |
| Tetete | teb | Unattested, but intelligeble with Siona language |
| Thu Lao | tyl | Duplicate of Dai Zhuang |
| Tingui-Boto | tgv | Ethnic group speaking Dzubukuá |
| Welaung | weu | Place name, not a language |
| Yarsun | yrs | |
| Yauma | yax |
References and notes
External links
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