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Surgical removal of one or both breasts From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Mastectomy is the medical term for the surgical removal of one or both breasts, partially or completely. A mastectomy is usually carried out to treat breast cancer.[1][2] In some cases, women believed to be at high risk of breast cancer have the operation as a preventive measure.[1] Alternatively, some women can choose to have a wide local excision, also known as a lumpectomy, an operation in which a small volume of breast tissue containing the tumor and a surrounding margin of healthy tissue is removed to conserve the breast. Both mastectomy and lumpectomy are referred to as "local therapies" for breast cancer, targeting the area of the tumor, as opposed to systemic therapies, such as chemotherapy, hormonal therapy, or immunotherapy.
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The decision to perform a mastectomy is based on various factors, including breast size, the number of lesions, biologic aggressiveness of a breast cancer, the availability of adjuvant radiation, and the willingness of the patient to accept higher rates of tumor recurrences after lumpectomy and/or radiation.[3] Outcome studies comparing mastectomy to lumpectomy with radiation have suggested that routine radical mastectomy surgeries will not always prevent later distant secondary tumors arising from micro-metastases prior to discovery, diagnosis, and operation. In most circumstances, there is no difference in both overall survival and breast cancer recurrence rate.[4][5] While there are both medical and non-medical indications for mastectomy, the clinical guidelines and patient expectations for before and after surgery remain the same.
Despite the increased ability to offer breast conservation techniques to those with breast cancer, certain groups may be better served by traditional mastectomy procedures including:
Mastectomy has non-cancer medical uses as well, including cosmetic or reconstructive surgery.[9] Men with gynecomastia may be eligible for mastectomy, but minimally invasive surgical techniques also exist.[10][11] Transgender men and non-binary people assigned female at birth may undergo a mastectomy as a gender-affirming surgery.[12][13]
Aside from the post-surgical pain and the obvious change in the shape of the chest and/or breast(s), possible side effects of a mastectomy include soreness, scar tissue at the site of the incision, short-term swelling, phantom breast pain (pain in the breast or tissue that has been removed), wound infection or bleeding, hematoma (buildup of blood in the wound), and seroma (buildup of clear fluid in the wound). If the lymph nodes are also removed, additional side effects such as lymphedema (swelling of the lymph nodes) may occur.[14]
Upper limb problems such as shoulder and arm pain, weakness and restricted movement are a common side effect after breast cancer surgery.[15] According to research in the UK, an exercise programme started 7–10 days after surgery can reduce upper limb problems.[16][17]
Currently, there are several surgical approaches to mastectomy, and the type that a person decides to undergo (or whether they will decide instead to have a lumpectomy) depends on factors such as the size, location, and behavior of the tumor (if one is present), whether or not the surgery is prophylactic, and whether the person intends to undergo reconstructive surgery.[18]
Prior to undergoing the mastectomy, it is important to meet with the surgeon to discuss the relevant risks and benefits of receiving the surgery. Depending on the indication for mastectomy, there may be other options to address the clinical condition. One important consideration to discuss with the surgeon is whether breast reconstruction will occur and when this procedure will take place. One option is to have the reconstruction immediately after the mastectomy in the same surgery, whereas other patients opt for a subsequent surgery for reconstruction. This breast reconstruction surgery will be conducted by a plastic surgeon. In addition to the surgeon, a meeting with an anesthesiologist is pertinent in order to review the patient's medical history and determine the plan of anesthesia.[citation needed]
Leading up to the day of the surgery, there are various considerations that patients can be cognizant of to facilitate their recovery following surgery. As with other surgeries that may lead to appreciable blood loss, it is advised not to take aspirin or aspirin-containing products for 10 days before the surgery.[31] The reason for this is to prevent the anti-coagulative function of aspirin and other blood thinners that would make it difficult to achieve coagulation during the surgery. In addition, it is important for patients to tell the doctor about any medications, vitamins, or supplements that they are taking because some substances could interfere with the surgery.[32] It is also pertinent for patients to not eat or drink 8 to 12 hours before surgery, however, there may be specific pre-operative instructions given by each patient's care team.[33]
Maintaining fitness and proper nutrition is also an important measure to consider prior to receiving a surgery because it has been shown that postoperative outcomes are improved in patients that exercise and maintain a healthy diet prior to surgery. In addition to nutrition and exercise, it is advised to reduce alcohol consumption and smoking. This concept of pre-rehabilitation is beneficial in mitigating post-operative complications and decreasing length of stay in the hospital.[34] The rationale is that increasing a patient's functional status prior to surgery will allow for a smoother and faster recovery in the postoperative setting.[35]
Recent research has indicated that mammograms should not be done with any increased frequency than the normal procedure in women undergoing breast surgery, including breast augmentation, mastopexy, and breast reduction.[36]
Prior to leaving the hospital, people who have had a mastectomy will typically be given a prescription for pain medication to ameliorate any pain or discomfort at the surgery site.[31][37][38] Recognizing signs of a surgical site infection including fever, redness, swelling, or pus is important. Any signs of infection should be reported to and assessed by a medical professional. In addition, signs of lymphedema due if lymph node removal is performed during mastectomy may be detected by the presence of heaviness, tightness, or fullness in the hand, arm, or axillary area region.[37]
Regarding return to activity, it is advised not to engage in strenuous activity or lift objects above 5 pounds for up to six weeks after a mastectomy at the discretion of the physician.[37] However, it is common for a member of the medical team to provide home exercises designed to maintain arm and shoulder movement and flexibility. Walking is also highly encouraged and allowed immediately after surgery. Most people who undergo a mastectomy can return to work and other regular physical activities in approximately 4 weeks after surgery.[citation needed]
People who have had a mastectomy will usually have a post-operative follow-up visit with their provider 1–2 weeks after surgery.[31][38] The time at which a person can start to wear a bra or reconstructive breast varies and is often at the discretion of the physician.[38]
Some people with breast cancer may require additional radiotherapy after their mastectomy procedure with the goal of reducing the risk of the cancer returning to the lymph nodes and the tissue remaining in the wall of the person's chest.[39] The decision by the medical team for suggesting radiotherapy may differ between individual professionals.[39] Most teams recommend radiotherapy after a masectomy for people who are at a higher risk of cancer recurrence including those with large breast tumours (5 cm and larger) and people with cancer that has spread to multiple axillary lymph nodes (4 or more).[39] The necessity and usefulness of radiotherapy on people at slightly lower risk, for example, the cancer has spread to 1-3 axillary lymph nodes, is not as clear.[39]
Between 2005 and 2013, the overall rate of mastectomy increased 36 percent, from 66 to 90 per 100,000 adult women. The rate of hospital-based bilateral mastectomies (inpatient and outpatient combined) more than tripled, from 9.1 to 29.7 per 100,000 adult women, whereas the rate of unilateral mastectomies remained relatively stable at around 60 per 100,000 women. From 2005 to 2013, the rate of bilateral outpatient mastectomies increased more than fivefold and the inpatient rate nearly tripled. The rate of unilateral mastectomies nearly doubled in the outpatient setting but decreased 28 percent in the inpatient setting. By 2013, nearly half of all mastectomies were performed outpatient.[40] However, there are concerns that these rising rates of mastectomies are most greatly seen in women with node-negative and noninvasive lesions, which are subsets of patients that do not require mastectomy.[41]
Mastectomy rates vary tremendously worldwide, as was documented by the 2004 'Intergroup Exemestane Study',[42] an analysis of surgical techniques used in an international trial of adjuvant treatment among 4,700 females with early breast cancer in 37 countries. The mastectomy rate was highest in central and eastern Europe at 77%. The USA had the second highest rate of mastectomy with 56%, western and northern Europe averaged 46%, southern Europe 42% and Australia and New Zealand 34%.
Breast surgery was first described 3000 years ago. In the earliest stages, breast tumors were treated with simple cauterization. Later, alternating incision and cauterization with complete removal of tumors was suggested by Leonides, one of the first breast oncologic surgeons recorded in history.[6] Other surgeons recommended excision and cauterization only if the tumor could be removed completely; otherwise, avoiding surgery was recommended. Ambrose Pare (b. 1510), a well-known surgeon from Paris who was well known for his experience treating soldiers who were injured, proposed a multi-tiered approach to breast surgery. While superficial cancers could be excised, more advanced cancers were managed through compression by lead plates to reduce blood supply to the tumor.[citation needed]
In the 1500s, William Fabry (b.1560), a German surgeon known as the father of German surgery, created a device that compressed and fixed the base of the breast during mastectomy, which subsequently allowed for faster excision of the breast. Another technique developed during this time to improve efficiency of breast dissection was using ligatures to achieve anterior traction. Despite the development of these techniques, there were few mastectomies actually performed at the time due to lack of qualified surgeons and the high morbidity, mortality and disfigurement associated with the surgery.[citation needed]
During the 1700s, large contributions in mapping lymph nodes for surgery were made by Pieter Camper (b. 1722) and Paolo Mascagni (b. 1752). Lymph node removal was advocated for in managing breast cancer.[7] At this time, surgeries were still performed without proper aseptics and without anesthesia.
In the 19th century, Seishu Hanaoka, a Japanese surgeon, performed the first surgery in the world under general anesthesia. Many more advancements in anesthesia and aseptic technique were made during this century. William Roentgen discovered x-rays in 1895, which radically shifted breast cancer treatment from a solely surgical approach to the multi-pronged approach employed today, including imaging, hormonal therapy, radiation, chemotherapy and immunotherapy.[8]
During the 20th century, progress was made towards skin-sparing mastectomies for treatment of breast cancer. Recent literature suggests that these procedures allow for improved aesthetic outcomes while also not increasing risk for local recurrence compared to conventional mastectomies.[43][44][45][46]
For example, in 1937, the Tauton State Hospital in Massachusetts reported 1 mastectomy in its operating rooms that year, listed alongside other operations including colostomy (1), enterostomy (1), herniorrhaphy (4), laparotomy (1), and circumcision (2).[47]
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