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Arawakan language spoken in South America From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Karu, one of several languages called Baniwa (Baniva), or in older sources Itayaine (Iyaine), is an Arawakan language spoken in Guainía, Colombia, Venezuela, and Amazonas, Brazil. It forms a subgroup with the Tariana, Piapoco, Resígaro and Guarequena languages.[2] There are 10,000 speakers.[3]
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| Karu | |
|---|---|
| Baniwa of Içana | |
| Tapuya | |
| Native to | Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil |
| Ethnicity | Baniwa people |
Native speakers | 12,000 (2001–2007)[1] |
Arawakan
| |
| Dialects |
|
| Official status | |
Official language in |  Brazil (São Gabriel da Cachoeira) |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | Either:bwi – Baniwakpc – Curripako |
| Glottolog | bani1259 Baniwa-Curripaco |
| ELP | |
| |
Aikhenvald (1999) considers the three main varieties to be dialects; Kaufman (1994) considers them to be distinct languages, in a group he calls "Karu". They are:
Various (sub)dialects of all three are called tapuya, a Brazilian Portuguese and Nheengatu word for non-Tupi/non-Guarani Indigenous peoples of Brazil (from a Tupi word meaning "enemy, barbarian"). All are spoken by the Baniwa people. Ruhlen lists all as "Izaneni"; Greenberg's Adzánani (= Izaneni) presumably belongs here.
Ramirez (2020) gives the following classification for three separate dialect chains:[4]: 44
| Bilabial | Dental | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | voiced | m | n | ɲ | (ŋ) | |||
| voiceless | m̥ | n̥ | ɲ̊ | |||||
| Plosive | plain | p | t̪ | t | k | |||
| aspirated | pʰ | t̪ʰ | tʰ | kʰ | ||||
| voiced | b | d | ||||||
| Affricate | plain | ts | tʃ | |||||
| aspirated | tsʰ | tʃʰ | ||||||
| voiced | dz | dʒ | ||||||
| Fricative | plain | ɸ | ʃ | ʂ | ç | h | ||
| voiced | β | ʐ | ||||||
| Flap | voiced | ɺ | ||||||
| voiceless | ɺ̥ | |||||||
| Approximant | w ~ ʍ | j ~ j̊ | ||||||
Baniwa has active–stative alignment.[8] This means that the subject of an intransitive clause is sometimes marked in the same way as the agent of a transitive clause, and sometimes marked in the same way as the patient of a transitive clause. In Baniwa alignment is realized through verbal agreement, namely prefixes and enclitics.
Prefixes are used to mark:
Enclitics are used to mark:
| Prefixes | Enclitics | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| singular | plural | singular | plural | ||
| 1st person | nu- | wa- | -hnua | -hwa | |
| 2nd person | pi- | i- | -phia | -ihia | |
| 3rd person |
Nonfeminine | ri- | na- | -ni/ -hria | -hna |
| Feminine | ʒu- | ||||
| Impersonal | pa- | -pha | |||
The differences between active and stative intransitive clauses can be illustrated below:
Baniwa has an interesting system of noun classification that combines a gender system with a noun classifier system.[9] Baniwa has two genders: feminine and nonfeminine. Feminine gender agreement is used to refer to female referents, whilst nonfeminine gender agreement is used for all other referents. The two genders are only distinguished in third person singular. Aihkenvald (2007) considers the bipartite gender system to be inherited from Proto-Arawak.[9]
In addition to gender, Baniwa also has 46 classifiers. Classifiers are used in three main contexts:[9]
tʃipaɾa-api
metal.object-CL.hollow
'pan'
apa-api
one-CL.hollow
mawapi
blowgun+CL.long.thin
'one blow gun'
tʃipaɾa-api
metal.object-CL.hollow
maka-api
big-CL.hollow
'big pan'
Aihkenvald (2007) divides Baniwa classifiers into four different classes. One set of classifiers is used for humans, animate beings and body parts. Another set of classifiers specify the shape, consistency, quantification or specificity of the noun. Two more classes can be distinguished. One is only used with numerals and the other is only used with adjectives.[9]
Classifiers for Humans and animate beings:[9]
| Classifier | Usage | Example |
|---|---|---|
| -ita | for animate males and body parts | apa-ita pedaɾia 'one old man' |
| -hipa | for human males only | aphepa nawiki 'one man' |
| -ma | for female referents | apa-ma inaʒu 'one woman' |
Classifiers according to shape, consistency, quantification and specificity:[9]
| Classifier | Usage | Example |
|---|---|---|
| -da | round objects, natural phenomena and generic classifier | hipada 'stone' |
| -apa | flying animate, semioval objects | kepiʒeni 'bird' |
| -kwa | flat, round, extended objects | kaida 'beach' |
| -kha | curvilinear objects | a:pi 'snake' |
| -na | vertical, standing objects | haiku 'tree' |
| -Ø | hollow, small objects | a:ta 'cup' |
| -maka | stretchable, extended objects | tsaia 'skirt' |
| -ahna | liquids | u:ni 'water' |
| -ima | sides | apema nu-kapi makemaɾi 'one big side of my hand' |
| -pa | boxes, parcels | apa-'pa itsa maka-paɾi one big box of fishing hooks' |
| -wana | thin slice | apa-wana kuphe maka-wane 'a big thin slice of fish' |
| -wata | bundle for carrying | apa-wata paɾana maka-wate 'a big bundle of bananas' |
| -Ø | canoes | i:ta 'canoe' |
| -pawa | rivers | u:ni 'river' |
| -ʃa | excrement | iʃa 'excrement' |
| -ya | skins | dzawiya 'jaguar skin' |
There are two main strategies for negation in the Kurripako-Baniwa varieties:[3]
Different varieties have different negative markers. This is so prominent that speakers identify Kurripako dialects according to the words for 'yes' and 'no'.[3]
| Dialect | Spoken in | Yes | No |
|---|---|---|---|
| Aha-Khuri | Colombia, Venezuela & Brazil | Aha | Khuri |
| Ehe-Khenim | Venezuela | Ehe | Khenim |
| Oho-Karo | Colombia & Brazil | Oho | Karo |
| Oho-Ñame | Colombia & Brazil | Oho | Ñame |
The independent negative markers come before the verb. They are used as clausal negators in declarative and interrogative sentences. They are also used to link clauses.[3]
The privative suffix is attached to nouns to derive a verb which means 'lacking' the noun from which it was derived. The opposite of the privative prefix is the attributive prefix ka-. This derives a verb which means 'having' the noun from which it was derived.[3] The difference can be illustrated below:
The prefix is used in combination with the restrictive suffix -tsa to form negative imperatives, e.g. ma-ihnia-tsa 'don't eat!'. A privative prefix is also reconstructed in Proto-Arawak privative as *ma-.[10]
| Baniwa | English |
|---|---|
| Kapa | To See |
| Za | To Drink |
| Hima | To Hear |
| Cami | To Die |
| Nu | To Come |
| Baniwa | English |
|---|---|
| atxinari | man |
| inarru | woman |
| yene-pati | boy |
| inarru | girl |
| yém-beti | child |
| pa-dzo | father |
| noo-dua | mother |
| noenipe | son |
| noo-ido | daughter |
| nuda-querri | grandchild |
| nuda-queda | grand-daughter |
| nutxi-marré | genre |
| noo-ito | daughter-in-law |
| noo-querri | uncle |
| nocuiro | aunt |
| ni-ri | nephew |
| nôpérrirri | niece |
| no-ri | brother-in-law |
| no-i-dua | sister-in-law |
| noo-perri | grandfather |
| indaque-dua | grandmother |
| ne-wi-da | head |
| no-txi | eyes |
| notxi-macaia | right eye |
| noca-cuda | left eye |
| notxi-coré | hair |
| noécoá | forehead |
| noéni | ears |
| itaco | nose |
| nunuma | mouth |
| noénéne | tongue |
| noé-txa | teeth |
| nunumaia | lips |
| nuca-cuià | face |
| nué-râ | chin |
| nué-galico | neck |
| nuqui-apà | shoulders |
| no-cudà | chest |
| numiruapi | ribs |
| nucaré | heart |
| no-eni | lung |
| no-au-à | stomach |
| nona-pa | right or left arm |
| no-capi | right or left hand |
| no-motxi | navel |
| no-capuira | fingers |
| no-cotxi | leg |
| no-ipà | foot |
| no-ipé-uidà | toes |
| no-coro-da | to heel |
| nosso-tà | nail |
| e-eno | sky |
| e-uitxi | stars |
| amôri | sun |
| ke-rri | moon |
| e-eno | thunderbolt |
| e-quapi | day |
| de-pi | night |
| i-zzapà | hill, mountain |
| u-uni | river |
| cá-retá | lake |
| i-zzá | rain |
| cuára | wind |
| inhau-opo | stream |
| u-ni | water |
| qué-véré | island |
| ri-ipá | waterfall |
| kenihé | farm |
| pan-ete | house |
| ni-dá | canoe |
| ti-iná | ranch |
| i-ipaí | yard |
| ti-izzé | fire, firewood |
| tizé-ven | ember |
| ye-tá | network |
| u-paí | floor |
| ai-co | tree |
| cuia | gourd |
| no-inhau-adá | food |
| cápa | do |
| má-tari | axe |
| to-rro | pan |
| to-ro-dá | clay pot |
| guaraia | basket |
| dôpetzi | sieve |
| paraná | banana |
| cae-ini | manioc |
| ma-tsoca | flour |
| noo-cacá, cará-atxi | sweet potato |
| a-pi | pepper |
| mapa | sugar cane |
| matxucá | chicken |
| rie-fé | egg |
| ci-no | dog |
| a-pidzá | pig |
| tzzaui | ounce |
| né-irri | deer |
| ti-itxi | agouti |
| aridari | armadillo |
| e-má | tapir |
| cal-xerri | alligator |
| cu-pé | fish |
| acorro | animal |
| hamé | ant |
| maroio | beads |
| yukira | salt |
| palito | matches |
| txurra | trousers |
| ma-uidá | comb |
| hon-hon | yes |
| curi-papa | no |
| no-i-no | single |
| no-i-nerri | married |
| no-ine-dzango | widower |
| ma-txi-áde | good |
| dopo | ugly |
| matxidé | bad |
| a-perri | cold |
| a-mûde | hot, warm |
| tacua | fever |
| cá-ide | ache |
| pauéridza | one |
| dzamâuari | two |
| madariaui | three |
| uadáca | four |
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