Homeschooling

Not to be confused with Distance education, Independent school, Out-of-school learning, or Autodidacticism.

"Homeschool" and "Home School" redirect here. For the EP, see Homeschool (EP). For the novel, see Home School (novel).

Homeschooling or home schooling (American English), also known as home education or elective home education (EHE) (British English),^[1] is the education of school-aged children at home or a variety of places other than a school. Usually conducted by a parent, tutor, or online teacher, many homeschool families use less formal, more personalized and individualized methods of learning that are not always found in schools. The actual practice of homeschooling varies considerably. The spectrum ranges from highly structured forms based on traditional school lessons to more open, free forms such as unschooling, which is a lesson- and curriculum-free implementation of homeschooling. Some families who initially attended a school go through a deschool phase to break away from school habits and prepare for homeschooling. While "homeschooling" is the term commonly used in North America, "home education" is primarily used in Europe and many Commonwealth countries. Homeschooling should not be confused with distance education, which generally refers to the arrangement where the student is educated by and conforms to the requirements of an online school, rather than being educated independently and unrestrictedly by their parents or by themselves.

Educating children at home

Before the introduction of compulsory school attendance laws, most childhood education was done by families and local communities. By the early 19th century, attending a school became the most common means of education in the developed world. In the mid to late 20th century, more people began questioning the practice of school learning, which again led to an increase in the number of homeschoolers, especially in the Americas and some European countries. In the 21st century, homeschooling is a relatively widespread form of education and a legal alternative to public and private schools in many countries, which many people believe is due to the rise of the Internet, which enables people to obtain information very quickly. The regulation and legality of homeschooling varies by jurisdiction.

There are many different reasons for homeschooling, ranging from personal interests to dissatisfaction with the school system. Homeschooling is also an option for families living in remote rural areas, those temporarily abroad, those who travel frequently and therefore face the physical impossibility or difficulty of getting their children into school, and those who want to spend more time with their children. Health reasons and special needs can also play a role in why children cannot attend a school regularly and are at least partially homeschooled.

Critics of homeschooling argue that children may lack adequate socialization and therefore have poorer social skills. Some are also concerned that parents may be unqualified to guide and advise their children, or that abusive parents may use homeschool to isolate their children. Critics also say that a child might not encounter people of other cultures, worldviews, and socioeconomic groups if they are not enrolled in a school. Therefore, these critics believe that homeschooling cannot guarantee a comprehensive and neutral education if educational standards are not prescribed. Studies on homeschooled students typically rely on convenience sampling, which may disproportionately sample the highest-achieving homeschoolers.^[2]: 51 Researchers have identified a need for more representative samples in studying homeschooling.^[2]: 51

Terminology

While "homeschooling" is the term commonly used in the United States and other nations in North America, "home education" is primarily used in the United Kingdom, elsewhere in Europe and many Commonwealth countries.^[1][3][4]

History

See also: History of education

Frontispiece to Fireside Education, Samuel Griswold (Goodrich)

Early history

For most of history, home education was common.^[5] In many cultures, home education often consisted of literacy training centered around religious texts, as well as basic math skills needed in everyday life. Reading aloud, reciting, and memorizing passages from the Bible and other Christian writing were central to this practice, as well as workplace-based education such as apprenticeships. Enlisting professional tutors was an option available only to the wealthy.^[6]: 5–6 Home education declined in the 19th and 20th centuries with the enactment of compulsory school attendance laws. However, it continued to be practised in isolated communities. The practice of what we now call homeschooling began in the 1960s and 1970s with educational reformists dissatisfied with industrialized education.^[5]

Home education and apprenticeship continued to remain the main form of education until the 1830s.^[7] However, in the 18th century, the majority of people in Europe lacked formal education.^[8] Since the early 19th century, formal classroom schooling became the most common means of schooling throughout the developed countries.^[9] As laws enforcing public school attendance proliferated, movements to resist such laws began to form.^{[6]: 16–17}

United States

Resistance to laws mandating school attendance emerged as early as the end of the nineteenth century.^[2][6]: 16 Catholic groups in particular resisted the enforcement of Protestant ideals in public schools, as seen in the 1844 Philadelphia nativist riots. The Philadelphia Roman Catholic bishop requested that Catholic schoolchildren be permitted to read the Catholic Douay bible in school rather than the Protestant King James Version, which was granted. This decision fanned anti-Catholic sentiment, sparking a rumor that Catholics were attempting to remove the Bible from schools.^[6]: 16 The Toledo Reverend Patrick Francis Quigley was put on trial in 1891 for resisting the requirement to report the names of students at his school, which he was principal of; he argued unsuccessfully that "the state has no right to control the education of the child."^[6]: 16 Resistance to mandatory schooling was sporadic throughout the 19th century as the state undertook more responsibility in protecting the rights of children.

In 1913 the US Bureau of Education established the Home Education Division, an organization which worked with the National Council of Mothers and Parent-Teacher Associations to provide home curriculum materials, although these were meant to supplement, not substitute, for public schooling. In the early 20th century, the headmaster of Baltimore's Calvert School, Virgil Hillyer, recognized that various students at his school were unable to attend due to ill health, and began to send out lesson plans to those students' parents. The Calvert method became a popular early home curriculum. Its advertising in periodicals such as McClure's admonished parents that the curriculum was necessary to provide a proper education.^[6]: 26 This form of homeschooling was targeted primarily at those who needed to educate their children at home due to ill health, and many of their materials were dispatched to hospitals.^[6]: 26 1940 brought the advent of remote education by telephone.^[6]: 28

In the 1960s, Rousas John Rushdoony began to advocate homeschooling, which he saw as a way to combat the increasingly secular nature of the public school system in the United States. He vigorously attacked progressive school reformers such as Horace Mann and John Dewey, and argued for the dismantling of the state's influence in education in three works: Intellectual Schizophrenia, The Messianic Character of American Education, and The Philosophy of the Christian Curriculum. Rushdoony was frequently called as an expert witness by the Home School Legal Defense Association (HSLDA) in court cases. He frequently advocated the use of private schools.^[10] The HSLDA, founded in 1983, was highly successful in influencing the legal status of homeschooling in the United States.^[11] In the 1980s, homeschooling was illegal throughout much of the United States for parents who were not themselves trained educators. Today, the United States enjoys some of the most lax laws around homeschool in the world, with most states requiring little to no oversight for homeschooling and no educational requirements for parents.^[12]

Conservative Evangelical Christian parents were increasingly dissatisfied with the public school system and were the main demographic that organized to promote home education in the United States.^[13] Prominent Evangelical pastor and activist Jerry Falwell expressed horror that sex education and lessons on evolution had replaced prayer and Bible study in schools.^[6]: 35 This movement embraced research conducted by other religious parents that advocated for homeschooling such as Raymond and Dorothy Moore.^[14] Another influential figure associated with the rise of the homeschooling movement was John Holt. Holt believed that informal education was better than compulsory education and expressed these views in his books How Children Fail and How Children Learn.^[15] Holt advocated for unschooling, where children learn without any formalized curriculum or expectations.^[16] As homeschooling caught on in the Evangelical movement, the number of children being homeschooled increased massively, with some estimates suggesting the number went from under twenty thousand in the 1970s, to nearly 500,000 by the end of the 1980s.^[6]: 74

Germany

Homeschooling is heavily restricted in Germany. The history of public schooling dates back to the time of Martin Luther, who called on the government to provide schooling to both boys and girls in To the Councilmen of all Cities in Germany (An die Ratsherren aller Städte deutschen Landes), so that they might read the Bible for themselves. Today, compulsory education at school is strictly enforced in Germany, and is only permitted in rare cases, such as that of serious illness. However, parents interested in alternative schooling may choose to send their children to a private, independent school.^[17]

France

Homeschooling in France is permitted only in specific circumstances: for the health of the child, for intensive artistic or sports training, for itinerant families, and for those who live too far from a school. To be granted the right to homeschool, parents must have a baccalauréat or equivalent to prove they are qualified to teach. These restrictions were introduced in September 2022, known as loi contre le séparatisme: a law designed to reduce "Islamist separatism" and enforce secularism.^[18][19]

Asia

A meta-analysis of studies on homeschooling in Asia found that the majority of homeschoolers cited religion as their reason for homeschooling.^[20]

COVID-19 pandemic

Main article: Homeschooling during the COVID-19 pandemic

Because schools were widely shut down during the early part of the COVID-19 pandemic, many schools implemented distance education and online learning. This is not considered homeschooling, since students' education was directed by public schools.^[2] However, the onset of the pandemic triggered a massive increase in the prevalence of homeschooling. An investigation by the Washington Post estimated that the United States saw an increase of homeschooled children from 1.5 million to between 1.9 and 2.7 million, a number comparable to the number of students in charter schools or Catholic schools. This increase was far-reaching across every measured demographic category and region. This increase has led to a rise in critical interest about the impacts of homeschooling, both positive and negative.^[21]

Motivations

See also: Motivations for unschooling

Families have a wide variety of reasons for choosing homeschooling. This bar chart shows the most common motivations for homeschooling in the United States as of 2023.^[22]

There are many reasons why parents and children choose to homeschool, whether by necessity or by choice.

Homeschool may be a necessity for a variety of reasons. For those who are in isolated rural locations that are too far from a conventional school, living abroad, or travel frequently, homeschool provides more consistency and convenience, eliminating the issues of distance or cultural barriers.^[23] Many young athletes, actors, and musicians are taught at home to accommodate their travel and practice schedules more conveniently. Mental and physical health issues are also a reason parents may homeschool or take distance education.^[24][25]

Parents commonly cite two main motivations for voluntarily homeschooling their children: dissatisfaction with the local schools and the interest in increased involvement with their children's learning and development. Parental dissatisfaction with available schools typically includes concerns about the school environment, the quality of academic instruction, the curriculum, bullying, the risk of school shootings, racism, and lack of faith in the school's ability to cater to their children's special needs.^[26] Some parents homeschool in order to have greater control over what and how their children are taught, to cater more adequately to an individual child's aptitudes and abilities, to provide instruction from a specific religious or and moral position, and to take advantage of the efficiency of one-to-one instruction and thus allow the child to spend more time on childhood activities, socializing, and non-academic learning.^[27]

A 2023 survey of homeschooling parents in the United States found concerns about school environment, moral instruction, dissatisfaction with academics, concern about school shootings, and bullying to be the most common reasons for homeschooling.^[28] The need for distance learning during the COVID-19 pandemic caused many parents to consider homeschooling where they might not have before.^[29]

Concerns about school environment - the most commonly cited reason for homeschooling - may comprise a number of issues with conventional schooling, such as protection against bullying, social exclusion, drugs, stress, sexualization, social pressures, excessive performance thoughts,^{[clarification needed]} social groups or role models with negative influences, and degrading treatment^{[clarification needed]} in school.^{[30][31][32][33][34][24]} Children may also learn more efficiently at home because they are not distracted by other students or typical school scheduling.^[35] Some parents are of the opinion that certain temperaments are promoted in school, while others are inhibited which may also be a reason to homeschool their children.^[36] Many parents also homeschool their children and return their child into the school system later on, for example because they think that their child is too young or not yet ready to start school.^[27]

Religion

Some parents have objections to the secular nature of public schools and homeschool in order to give their children a religious education. Use of a religious curriculum such as Abeka is common among these families. In the United States, conservative Christians drove the movement to homeschool and made up the vast majority of homeschoolers until recent years. However, the percent of people who cited religion as the primary reason for homeschooling has declined drastically. In 2012, almost 2 of 3 homeschool parents did, while by 2023, the proportion dropped to just over 1 in 3.^[28] In a survey of adults homeschooled in Christian households, over half of respondents characterized their family as fundamentalist, and over 80% reported being taught Young Earth creationism as part of their science education.^[37] Homeschooling parents tend, in general, to lean more conservative than the general population.^[28]

In Asia, the majority of homeschoolers cited religion - Christianity, Confucianism, or Islam - as their primary reason for homeschooling.^[20]

Racism

Some African-American families choose to homeschool as a way of increasing their children's understanding of African-American history – such as the Jim Crow laws that resulted in African Americans being prevented from reading and writing – and to limit the harm caused by the unintentional and sometimes subtle systemic racism that affects most American schools.^[38] The increase of homeschooling post-COVID-19 pandemic saw the greatest increases among Black, Latino, and Asian American households. Many families cited concerns that their children, particularly boys, were perceived as threatening or violent at school due to racism, as well as the issue of school quality and funding.^[39]

On the other hand, some groups promote homeschooling to enforce white supremacist ideals. An exposé of a Nazi homeschooling network in Ohio with over two thousand members led to no consequences or restrictions on the group due to lax regulatory requirements in the state.^[40]

Teaching methods, forms and philosophies

See also: Pedagogy

Homeschooling is usually conducted by a parent, tutor, or an online teacher,^[41] but the concrete practice can vary widely. The spectrum ranges from highly structured forms based on traditional school lessons to more open, free forms like unschooling,^[42] which is a curriculum-free implementation of homeschooling that involves teaching children based on their interests.^[43][44][45]

Homeschool families can utilize a wide variety of educational methods and materials with a wide range of educational paradigms.^[46] Some of the concepts homeschoolers can incorporate include classical education (including Trivium, Quadrivium), Charlotte Mason education, Montessori, theory of multiple intelligences, unschooling, Waldorf, school-at-home (curriculum choices from both secular and religious publishers), and A Thomas Jefferson Education. Homeschool educations may incorporate pre-made curriculum made up from private or small publishers, apprenticeship, hands-on-learning, distance learning (both online and correspondence), dual enrollment in local schools or colleges, and curriculum provided by local schools and many others.

A student's education may be customized to support his or her learning level, style, and interests.^[47] It is not uncommon for a student to experience more than one approach as the family discovers what works best for their student. Some companies offer all-in-one homeschooling curricula. Purchased as a grade-level package or separately by subject, the package may contain all of the needed books, materials, tests, answer keys, and extensive teacher guides.^[48] However, many families use an eclectic approach, picking and choosing from various suppliers. For sources of curricula and books, a study found that 78 percent utilized "a public library"; 77 percent used "a homeschooling catalogue, publisher, or individual specialist"; 68 percent used "retail bookstore or another store"; 60 percent used "an education publisher that was not affiliated with homeschooling." "Approximately half" used curriculum from "a homeschooling organization", 37 percent from a "church, synagogue or other religious institution" and 23 percent from "their local public school or district." In 2003, 41 percent utilized some sort of distance learning, approximately 20 percent by "television, video or radio"; 19 percent via "The Internet, e-mail, or the World Wide Web"; and 15 percent taking a "correspondence course by mail designed specifically for homeschoolers."^{[49][clarification needed]}

Individual governmental units, e.g. states and local districts, vary in official curriculum and attendance requirements.^[50]

Structured versus unstructured

Approaches to homeschooling fall under two categories: structured and unstructured. Structured homeschooling includes any method or style of home education that follows a basic curriculum with articulated goals and outcomes. This style attempts to imitate the structure of a traditional school setting while personalizing the curriculum. Unstructured homeschooling, also known as unschooling, is any form of home education where parents do not construct a curriculum at all. This method attempts to teach through the child's daily experiences and focuses more on self-directed learning by the child, free of textbooks, teachers, and any formal assessment of success or failure.^[51]

Unschooling and natural learning

Main article: Unschooling

The term unschooling, coined by John Holt, describes an approach in which parents do not authoritatively direct the child's education, but interact with the child following the child's interests, leaving them free to explore and learn.^[52][49] Natural learning refers to a type of learning-on-demand where children pursue knowledge based on their interests and parents take an active part in facilitating activities and experiences conducive to learning but do not rely heavily on textbooks or spend much time "teaching", looking instead for "learning moments" throughout their daily activities. Parents see their role as that of affirming through positive feedback and modeling the necessary skills, and the child's role as being responsible for asking and learning.^[53]

Another prominent proponent of unschooling is John Taylor Gatto, author of Dumbing Us Down, The Exhausted School, A Different Kind of Teacher, and Weapons of Mass Instruction. Gatto argues that public education is the primary tool of "state-controlled consciousness" and serves as a prime illustration of the total institution — a social system which impels obedience to the state and quells free-thinking or dissent.^[54]

Informal learning

Main article: Informal learning

Informal learning refers to the component of homeschooling which happens outside of the classroom. Informal learning is an everyday form of learning through participation and creation, in contrast with the traditional view of teacher-centered learning. The term is usually used synonymously with "non-formal learning" and "self-directed learning." Informal learning differs from traditional learning as there are no expected objectives or outcomes. From the learner's standpoint, the knowledge that they receive is not intentional. Activities such as planting a garden, baking a cake or even talking to a technician at work about the installation of new software can be considered informal learning: the individual is completing a task with different intentions but ends up learning skills in the process.^[55] Children watching their tomato plants grow will not generate questions about photosynthesis but they will learn that their plants are growing with water and sunlight. This leads them to have a base understanding of complex scientific concepts without any background studying.^[56]

Depending on the part of the world, informal learning can take on many different identities and has differing cultural importances. Many ways of organizing homeschooling draw on the model of apprenticeships and play-based learning. In some South American indigenous cultures, such as the Chillihuani community in Peru, children learn irrigation and farming technique through play, advancing them not only in their own village and society but also in their knowledge of realistic techniques that they will need to survive.^[57] In Western culture, children use informal learning in two main ways: through hands-on experience with new material, and by asking questions to someone who has more experience (i.e. parents, elders). The concept of informal learning depends on the inquisitiveness and interests of the child.^[58]

Unit studies

In a unit study approach, multiple subjects such as math, science, history, art, and geography, are studied in relation to a single topic. Unit studies are useful for teaching multiple grades simultaneously as the difficulty level can be adjusted for each student. An extended form of unit studies, Integrated Thematic Instruction utilizes one central theme integrated throughout the curriculum so that students finish a school year with a deep understanding of a certain broad subject or idea.^[59]

Autonomous learning

Autonomous learning is a school of education which sees learners as individuals who can and should be autonomous; i.e., be responsible for their own learning climate.

Autonomous education helps students develop their self-consciousness, vision, practicality, and freedom of discussion. These attributes serve to aid the student in his/her independent learning. However, a student must not start their autonomous learning completely on their own. It is said that first having interaction with someone who has more knowledge in a subject will speed up the student's learning and allow them to learn more independently.^[60]

Some degree of autonomous learning is popular with those who home educate their children. In true autonomous learning, the child usually gets to decide what projects they wish to tackle or what interests to pursue. In-home education, this can be instead of or in addition to regular subjects like doing math or English.

Hybrid homeschooling

Hybrid homeschooling or flex-school^[27] is a form of homeschooling in which children split their time between homeschool and a more traditional schooling environment like a school.^[61] The number of students who participated in hybrid homeschooling increased during the COVID-19 pandemic.^[62]

A commonly cited reason for choosing this model is that parents are not sure whether they can provide their children a comprehensive and neutral education at home or cannot devote themselves to homeschooling full-time due to time constraints or excessive stress.^[63] Some families also want their children to socialize with other children and find that schools are better suited for this purpose because social exchange does not only take place occasionally, but is an everyday experience there.^[63]

Homeschool cooperatives

A homeschool cooperative is a cooperative of families who homeschool their children. It provides an opportunity for children to learn from other parents who are more specialized in certain areas or subjects. Co-ops also provide social interaction. They may take lessons together or go on field trips. Some co-ops also offer events such as prom and graduation for homeschoolers.^[64]

Homeschoolers are beginning to utilize Web 2.0 as a way to simulate homeschool cooperatives online. With social networks, homeschoolers can chat, discuss threads in forums, share information and tips, and even participate in online classes via learning management systems similar to those used by colleges.^[65]

Research on outcomes

Research on homeschooling faces a number of challenges and limitations. The documentation and regulation of homeschooling in the United States is highly variable among states, with a minority of states administering any rigorous testing or record-keeping of homeschooled children; in eleven states, no record of homeschooled students is kept at all.^[66] As of 2022, virtually all research on homeschooling used convenience sampling, leading to issues with selection bias. Homeschoolers as a demographic tend towards distrust of surveillance and institutions, making eliminating survey bias a challenge.^[66] Other common methodological problems commonly included the presence of confounding factors such as socioeconomic status and parental involvement, over-reliance on parental testimony, and taking into account the timing and duration of homeschooling (many homeschoolers only do so for a few years).^[2] Homeschooling research is often conducted on homeschooled children or their parents; surveys of adults who have been homeschooled are extremely limited.^[66]

The majority of homeschool research in the United States is done with the support of the homeschool advocacy group, the Home School Legal Defense Association (HSLDA). A review of studies performed by prominent HSLDA-affiliated researcher Dr. Brian D. Ray found severe design limitations^[66] and demographic bias; nearly all subjects in his studies were White, Christian, and from households with two married parents who were more educated than average. Meanwhile, a 2016 federal survey of US homeschoolers found that over 40 percent of homeschoolers were not White, a majority had parents with less than a bachelor's degree, and over one in five lived in poverty.^[67]

In the UK, the government has noted that no figures are available on educational attainment for children educated at home: "This means no assessment can be made of the impact on educational attainment of being home schooled".^[68]

Academic

Claims by homeschooling proponents that homeschoolers fare better than traditionally schooled children are insufficiently supported by data.^{[6]: 99 [66]} With the studies available, a 2022 review found it was unable to offer firm conclusions because of these issues, but did not find systematic evidence of poor educational or social outcomes.^[2] Another survey of studies related to homeschooling found that, controlling for demographic bias, homeschoolers were generally on par with non-homeschoolers, with a slight advantage in reading and writing, and a slight disadvantage in math.^[66]

Parental class

A study conducted by Ray in 2010 indicates that the higher the level of parents' income, the more likely the homeschooled child is able to achieve academic success, which is in alignment with the correlation between income and achievement for students at conventional schools.^[69] In one study of families with parents who had an average of 13 years of schooling, homeschooling was correlated with lower test scores, which was attributed to the relatively lower educational status of the parents in the sample group; meanwhile, in studies with highly educated parents, homeschooling for longer periods of time, on average, had no effect, positive or negative.^[66] A study which collected all homeschooling outcomes in Alaska (a state where homeschooling is extremely popular due to government financial incentives and support) found that low income students, students of color, and students with disabilities gained the most advantages when being homeschooled, while those from white, well-off families scored overall worse than their public school peers, and suffered the greatest disadvantage in math. This is notable as being the only study of homeschooling outcomes with a complete data set of all known homeschool children in a given population, which does not rely on volunteered information. However, the existence of a financial incentive to homeschool in Alaska does raise questions about the applicability of the results to other areas which do not have these programs in place.^[70]

Unschooling

Unschooled children tend to score significantly below traditionally educated children, and higher parental involvement and the use of a structured curriculum is strongly positively correlated with homeschooling outcomes, as with conventionally schooled students.^[71][66]

"Math gap"

A survey of educational outcomes for homeschool students found that homeschoolers consistently scored below the average in math, but with mixed or average results in reading and writing. The exact cause of this is not known, but researchers speculated that this was due to the nature of curricula, which often consisted of being read to or self-directed reading, and a lack of parental training in math.^[66][72] Homeschooled children have been found to be less self-motivated when studying math than reading or writing. This gap in competency has also been suggested as a reason why homeschoolers are less likely to pursue higher education.^[72]

Higher education

Looking beyond high school, a study by the 1990 National Home Education Research Institute (as cited by Wichers, 2001) found that at least 33% of homeschooled students attended a four-year college, and 17% attended a two-year college^[73] (with the national average being 40% and 20%, respectively).^[72] This same study examined the students after one year, finding that 17% pursued higher education.^[73] A study by the Kentucky Office Of Education Accountability found that homeschooled students attended college or university within Kentucky at less than half the rate of other Kentucky high school graduates, with the academic outcomes of other homeschooled students being unknown.^[74]

Although educational outcomes of homeschoolers are difficult to track, especially where homeschooled students are not required to be registered, home-schoolers tend to take standardized college admission tests such as the SAT at a disproportionately low rate, suggesting they may be underrepresented in higher education.^[72] Some homeschoolers averaged higher scores on college entrance tests in South Carolina.^[75] Other scores (1999 data) showed mixed results, for example showing higher levels for homeschoolers in English (homeschooled 23.4 vs national average 20.5) and reading (homeschooled 24.4 vs national average 21.4) on the ACT, but mixed scores in math (homeschooled 20.4 vs national average 20.7 on the ACT as opposed to homeschooled 535 vs national average 511 on the 1999 SAT math).^[76]

For those homeschoolers who do pursue higher education, their GPA tends to be higher.^[72] Cogan (2010) found that homeschooled students at a doctoral program had higher high school GPAs (3.74) and transfer GPAs (3.65) than conventional students.^[77] Snyder (2013) provided corroborating evidence that homeschoolers at a Catholic university were outperforming their peers in the areas of standardized tests and overall GPAs.^[78] A limited amount of data exists that homeschoolers in college were much less likely than their peers to pursue degrees in STEM topics, and more likely to pursue creative degrees, which may be attributed to the "math gap" discussed above.^[72]

There is some evidence from 2009 that home-educated children in the UK are more likely to be NEET, Not in Employment, Education or Training, at age 16 to 18.^[68]

Social

Due to its qualitative nature and reliance on parental or self-assessment, the social outcomes of homeschooling are challenging to determine, despite being a major criticism of homeschooling as a phenomenon, and the quality of existing studies on this topic is poor, due to subject-typical problems with demographic bias.^[66]: 20

Homeschooled children have been found to score higher than average in self-concept, a metric correlated to positive social outcomes.^[79] NHERI researcher Richard G. Medlin found that homeschooled children sampled from Christian homeschool co-ops self-reported higher in cooperation, assertiveness, empathy, and self-control than a random sample of children attending public schools.^[80] A study of the social connections of homeschooled children found that homeschoolers had an equal number of social connections as their peers, but that those connections had a larger range of ages.^[66] A review of studies on the topic found that while homeschoolers were slightly more likely to report feelings of social isolation and be less peer-oriented, this may have fostered a greater sense of independence and self-determination as well.^[66]

Homeschooled youth are less likely to use illicit substances and are more likely to disapprove of using alcohol and marijuana.^[81]

Although a large proportion of parents cited religion as their primary reason for homeschooling, a 2008 survey found that homeschooling had no effect on the religious behavior or affiliation of children, with parents holding the same degree of influence over their children regardless of their schooling method.^[66]

Homeschooled students are more likely to vote than average, and homeschooled families were found to be more politically involved than those who did not homeschool.^[66]

Child abuse and neglect

Some studies suggest homeschooled children are less likely to experience sexual abuse than children in public schools, while others find no or mixed results.^[82]

After the death by abuse of homeschooled autistic teen Matthew Tirado, a Connecticut study was done to investigate the prevalence of neglect and abuse among homeschooled families. It found that 38% of children withdrawn from school to be homeschooled lived in families with one or more reports of abuse or neglect to the Department of Children and Families.^[83] In 1990, homeschool lobbyists defeated a proposed Florida law which would have required parents to be run against a child abuse registry before being allowed to homeschool their children.^[84] In the United States, only two states, Pennsylvania and Arkansas, prevent convicted child abusers and sex offenders from homeschooling.

Adulthood

Research on the long-term outcomes of homeschooled adults is severely lacking. An HSLDA survey, distributed by Evangelical Christian homeschooling networks, found extremely positive outcomes for homeschooled adults. A random survey of religious young adults found that those who were homeschooled got married younger, had fewer children, and divorced more frequently other religious adults, controlled for background variables. The homeschool cohort reported lower SAT scores, less time in college, and higher rates of feeling helplessness about life and lack of direction.^[66] In a survey of homeschooled adults, the majority of respondents reported satisfaction with their homeschool experience, although some factors were strongly correlated with lower satisfaction in various areas. For instance, those who were offered fewer opportunities to socialize with peers reported significantly lower preparedness for adult life, and those who reported their parents as Christian fundamentalists reported higher rates of abuse and lower quality of academic instruction. The prevalence of mental health problems was roughly on par with the general populace.^[85]

Legality and prevalence

Main article: Homeschooling international status and statistics

Attitudes towards homeschooling

Some organizations of teachers and school districts resist homeschooling. The National Education Association, a United States teachers' union and professional association, has asserted that teachers should be licensed and that state-approved curricula should be used.^[86][87] Elizabeth Bartholet, a Harvard University professor of law and faculty director of the Law School's Child Advocacy Program, recommended a ban on home education in 2019, calling it a risky practice.^[88]

Gallup polls of American voters showed a significant change in attitude from 1985 to 2001, with respondents going from 73% opposed to homeschooling to 54% opposed.^[89][90] In 1988, when asked whether parents should have a right to choose homeschooling, 53 percent thought that they should, as revealed by another poll.^[91]

Elizabeth Bartholet stated that homeschooling reduces a child's exposure to mandated reporters such as teachers, making children more susceptible to sustained, unreported abuse, and recommended that homeschooling be presumptively banned.^[88] While there is not enough data to determine exact rates of abuse in homeschooling there is, however, strong evidence to suggest that parents who engage in maltreatment and educational neglect are more likely to use homeschooling as a guise.^[92]

Political scientist Rob Reich speculated in The Civic Perils of Homeschooling (2002) that homeschooling could threaten to "insulate students from exposure to diverse ideas and people."^[93][94]

See also

• Homeschooling international status and statistics
• Alternative education
• History of education
• Home education in the United Kingdom
• Home School Legal Defense Association
• Homeschooling and alternative education in India
• Homeschooling and distance education in Australia
• Homeschooling during the COVID-19 pandemic
• Homeschooling in Canada
• Homeschooling in New Zealand
• Homeschooling in South Africa
• Homeschooling in the United States
• Informal learning
• List of homeschooling programmes

References

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Further reading

• Holt, John (2004) [1976]. Instead of Education: Ways to Help People Do Things Better. Boulder, CO: Sentient Publications. ISBN 978-1-59181-009-4.

External links

• A history of the modern homeschool movement, from the Cato Institute.
• National Home Education Research Institute (NHERI). NHERI produces research about homeschooling and sponsors the peer-reviewed academic journal Homeschool Researcher.
• "Homeschooling" in the Encyclopædia Britannica, written by Pat Farenga.