1988 Democratic Party presidential primaries

From February 8 to June 14, 1988, voters of the Democratic Party chose its nominee for president in the 1988 United States presidential election. Massachusetts governor Michael Dukakis was selected as the nominee through a series of primary elections and caucuses culminating in the 1988 Democratic National Convention held from July 18 to July 21, 1988, in Atlanta, Georgia.

1988 Democratic Party presidential primaries

← 1984 February 8 to June 14, 1988 1992 →
4,105 delegates to the Democratic National Convention 2,053 (majority) votes needed to win
Candidate Michael Dukakis Jesse Jackson Al Gore Home state Massachusetts South Carolina Tennessee Delegate count 1,792 1,023 374 Contests won 30 13 7 Popular vote 10,024,101 6,941,816 3,190,992 Percentage 42.4% 29.3% 13.5%   Candidate Paul Simon Dick Gephardt Home state Illinois Missouri Delegate count 161 137 Contests won 1 3 Popular vote 1,107,692 1,452,331 Percentage 4.7% 6.1%
First place by convention roll call
Previous Democratic nominee Walter Mondale Democratic nominee Michael Dukakis

Background

Having been badly defeated in the 1984 presidential election, the Democrats in 1985 and 1986 were eager to find a new approach to win the presidency. They created the Democratic Leadership Council (DLC), with the aim of recruiting a candidate for the 1988 election.^{[citation needed]}

The large gains in the 1986 mid-term elections (which resulted in the Democrats taking back control of the Senate after six years of Republican rule) and the continuing Iran–Contra affair gave Democrats confidence in the run-up to the primary season.^{[citation needed]}

Candidates

Nominee

Candidate			Most recent office	Home state	Campaign Withdrawal date	Popular vote	Contests won	Running mate
Michael Dukakis			Governor of Massachusetts (1975–1979, 1983–1991)	Massachusetts	(Campaign) Secured nomination: June 7, 1988	10,024,101 (42.37%)	30 NH, MN, ME primary, VT primary FL, HI caucus, ID caucus, MD MA, RI, TX, WA AS caucus, CO caucus, KS caucus CT, WI, AZ caucus, NY, UT caucus, PA, IN OH, NE, OR, CA, MT, NJ, NM, ND	Lloyd Bentsen

Withdrew during primaries or convention

Candidate			Most recent office	Home state	Campaign Withdrawal date	Popular vote	Contests won
Jesse Jackson			Civil rights leader	South Carolina	Eliminated at convention: July 21, 1988 (Campaign)	6,941,816 (29.34%)	13 AL, GA, LA, MS, VA AK caucus, SC, PR VT caucus, MI caucus, DE caucus, DC
Al Gore			U.S. Senator from Tennessee (1985–1993)	Tennessee	Withdrew: April 21, 1988 (Campaign)	3,190,992 (13.49%)	7 WY caucus, AR, KY NV caucus, NC, OK, TN
Paul Simon			U.S. Senator from Illinois (1985–1997)	Illinois	Withdrew: April 7, 1988(Campaign)	1,107,692 (4.68%)	1 IL
Dick Gephardt			U.S. Representative from Missouri (1977–2005)	Missouri	Withdrew: March 29, 1988(Campaign)	1,452,331 (6.14%)	3 IA caucus, SD, MO
Gary Hart			U.S. Senator from Colorado (1975–1987)	Colorado	Suspended campaign: May 8, 1987 Re-entered: December 12, 1987 Withdrew: March 12, 1988 (Campaign)	390,200 (1.65%)	0

Candidates who received less than 1%

• 
  Governor of Arizona
  Bruce Babbitt
  (Withdrew Feb. 18)
• 
  Activist and conspiracy theorist
  Lyndon LaRouche
• 
  Former Grand Wizard of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan
  David Duke
  (campaign)
• 
  Representative
  Douglas Applegate
  of Ohio

Withdrew before primaries

Candidate		Experience	Home state	Campaign Withdrawal date
Pat Schroeder		U.S. Representative from Colorado (1973–1997)	Colorado	Withdrew: September 28, 1987(Campaign)
Joe Biden		U.S. Senator from Delaware (1973–2009)	Delaware	Withdrew: September 23, 1987 (Campaign)

Declined

• Senator Lloyd Bentsen of Texas
• Senator Ted Kennedy of Massachusetts (December 19, 1985)^[1]
• Businessman Lee Iacocca (July 16, 1986)
• Governor Mario Cuomo of New York (February 19, 1987)
• Senator Sam Nunn of Georgia (February 21, 1987)
• Senator Dale Bumpers of Arkansas (March 20, 1987)
• Governor Bill Clinton of Arkansas (July 15, 1987)
• Senator Bill Bradley of New Jersey (August 2, 1987)
• Former Governor Chuck Robb of Virginia (November 12, 1987)

Polling

Nationwide polling

Before 1987

Poll source	Publication	Sample size		Mario Cuomo	Gary Hart	Lee Iacocca	Jesse Jackson	Other/Undecided
Gallup[a][2]	Jan 1986	?	?	23%	46%	17%	15%	99%
Gallup[a][2]	April 11–14, 1986	615 RV	±6.0%	25%	39%	14%	18%	104%[b]
Gallup[a][3]	July 11–14, 1986	729 RV	±5.0%	22%	34%	26%	17%	101%[c]

1987

Poll source	Dates	Sample size	Margin of error	Bruce Babbitt	Joe Biden	Michael Dukakis	Dick Gephardt	Al Gore	Gary Hart	Jesse Jackson	Paul Simon	Other/Undecided
Gallup[4]	Apr. 10–13, 1987	?	?	2%	–	4%	3%	2%	46%	18%	–	25%
May 8, 1987: Gary Hart suspends his campaign
Los Angeles Times	May 7–9, 1987	393 RV	±6.0%	2%	3%	12%	6%	6%	–	7%	3%	61%[d]
December 16, 1987: Gary Hart re-enters the race
Washington Post/ABC[5]	Dec. 15–17, 1987	318 RV	±6.0%	2%	–	15%	2%	5%	30%	20%	8%	18%
YCS[6]	Dec. 17–18, 1987	?	?	–	–	14%	4%	–	30%	22%	7%	23%
Gallup[4][6]	Dec. 17–28, 1987	?	?	–	–	10%	2%	–	31%	13%	10%	25%

1988

Poll source	Publication	Sample size	Bruce Babbitt	Michael Dukakis	Dick Gephardt	Al Gore	Gary Hart	Jesse Jackson	Paul Simon	Other/Undecided
YCS[6]	Jan. 3–6, 1988	?	–	11%	4%	–	28%	17%	13%	27%
CBS News/New York Times[6]	Jan. 17–21, 1988	?	2%	6%	4%	4%	23%	17%	9%	35%
Washington Post/ABC[6]	Jan. 17–23, 1988	?	3%	11%	4%	–	23%	25%	12%	22%
Gallup[4][6]	Jan. 22–24, 1988	560	3%	16%	9%	6%	23%	15%	9%	19%
Harris Interactive[6]	Jan. 7–26, 1988	?	–	15%	6%	–	19%	15%	8%	37%
Gordon Black[6]	Jan. 21–28, 1988	?	–	13%	9%	–	17%	13%	7%	41%
CBS News/New York Times[6]	Jan. 30–31, 1988	447	–	8%	4%	–	18%	16%	6%	48%
February 8: Iowa caucus
Washington Post/ABC[7]	Feb. 11–13, 1988	383 LV	6%	40%	16%	7%	3%	7%	17%	5%
CBS News[7]	Feb. 12–13, 1988	483 LV	3%	42%	18%	4%	4%	4%	12%	13%
Gallup[7]	Feb. 12–13, 1988	756 LV	5%	39%	18%	5%	3%	7%	16%	7%
February 16: New Hampshire primary
CBS News/New York Times[e][8]	Feb. 17–21, 1988	933	1%	21%	12%	8%	10%	13%	6%	30%
March 8: Super Tuesday
CBS News/New York Times[8]	Mar. 19–22, 1988	?	–	29%	8%	14%	–	22%	6%	21%

Head-to-head polling

Poll source	Publication	Sample size	Margin of error	Mario Cuomo	Gary Hart	Lee Iacocca	Jesse Jackson	Other/Undecided
Gallup[3]	June 9–16, 1986	452 RV	±6.0%	30%	55%	–	—	15%
				–	59%	28%	—	13%
				—	75%	–	14%	11%

Statewide and regional polling

South

Poll source	Dates	Sample size	Margin of error	Bruce Babbitt	Joe Biden	Mario Cuomo	Michael Dukakis	Dick Gephardt	Al Gore	Gary Hart	Jesse Jackson	Paul Simon	Other/Undecided
Atlanta Journal-Constitution[9][f]	Sep. 18–28, 1987	6,452 A	±2.0%	3%	3%	–	9%	5%	13%	–	27%	5%	35%[g]
				–	–	17%	–	–	–	27%	11%	–	45%[h]

California

Poll source	Dates	Sample size	Margin of error	Bruce Babbitt	Joe Biden	Michael Dukakis	Dick Gephardt	Al Gore	Gary Hart	Jesse Jackson	Paul Simon	Other/Undecided
Teichner/Sacramento Bee[10]	May 8–9, 1987	510 RV	±4.0%	3%	4%	5%	2%	2%	34%	9%	2%	39%
				2%	4%	8%	5%	5%	–	13%	3%	40%

Maryland

Poll source	Dates	Sample size	Margin of error	Bruce Babbitt	Joe Biden	Michael Dukakis	Dick Gephardt	Al Gore	Gary Hart	Jesse Jackson	Paul Simon	Other/Undecided
Savitz Research Center[11]	October 9–14, 1987	559 RV	±4.0%	2%	–	12%	5%	6%	–	35%	6%	35%[i]

New Hampshire

Poll source	Dates	Sample size	Margin of error	Bruce Babbitt	Joe Biden	Mario Cuomo	Michael Dukakis	Dick Gephardt	Al Gore	Gary Hart	Jesse Jackson	Chuck Robb	Paul Simon	Other/Undecided
Bannon Research[12]	Sep.–Oct. 1986	501 LV	±5.0%	1%	1%	26%	–	1%	–	47%	6%	1%	–	19%
				1%	1%	19%	27%	1%	—	33%	3%	–	–	17%

Pre-primary events

The Hart-Rice affair

Former U.S. Senator Gary Hart delivers a speech in 1987. Hart was the runner-up for the 1984 Democratic nomination and front-runner for 1988, but his campaign faltered and collapsed after revelations of an extra-marital affair.

The Democratic front-runner for most of 1987 was former Colorado Senator Gary Hart.^[13] Hart had made a strong showing in the 1984 primaries and, after Mondale's defeat in the presidential election, had positioned himself as the moderate centrist many Democrats felt their party would need to win.^[14]

However, questions and rumors about possible extramarital affairs and about past debts dogged Hart's campaign.^[15] One of the great myths is that Senator Hart challenged the media to "put a tail" on him and that reporters then took him up on that challenge. In fact, Hart had told E. J. Dionne of The New York Times that if reporters followed him around, they would "be bored". However, in a separate investigation, the Miami Herald claimed to have received an anonymous tip from a friend of Donna Rice that Rice was involved with Hart. It was only after Hart had been discovered that the Herald reporters found Hart's quote in a pre-print of The New York Times Magazine.^[16]

On May 8, 1987, a week after the Donna Rice story broke, Hart dropped out of the race.^[15]

In December 1987, Hart surprised many political pundits by resuming his presidential campaign.^[17] He again led in the polls for the Democratic nomination, both nationally and in Iowa. However, the allegations of adultery and reports of irregularities in his campaign financing had delivered a fatal blow to his candidacy, and he fared poorly in the early primaries before dropping out again.^[18]

The Hart scandal would later be depicted in the 2018 film The Front Runner, with Hugh Jackman portraying Hart.

Biden plagiarism scandals

Senator Joe Biden was another early contender who was forced to withdraw before the primaries when multiple plagiarism scandals derailed his candidacy.

See also: Joe Biden 1988 presidential campaign

Delaware Senator Joe Biden led a highly competitive campaign which ended in controversy after he was accused of plagiarizing a speech by Neil Kinnock, then-leader of the British Labour Party.^[19] Though Biden had correctly credited the original author in all speeches but one, the one of which he failed to make mention of the originator was caught on video and sent to the press by members of the Dukakis campaign. In the video Biden is filmed repeating a stump speech by Kinnock, with only minor modifications. Michael Dukakis later acknowledged that his campaign was responsible for leaking the tape, and two members of his staff resigned.^[20]

It was also discovered that Biden had been guilty of plagiarism years before, while a student at the Syracuse University College of Law in the 1960s. Though Biden professed his integrity, the impression lingering in the media as the result of this double punch would lead him to drop out of the race.^[20] He formally suspended his campaign on September 28, 1987.

The Delaware Supreme Court's Board on Professional Responsibility would later clear Biden of the law school plagiarism charges.^[21]

After campaigns in 2008 and 2020, Biden was elected vice president in 2008 and 2012 and president in 2020.

Endorsements

Michael Dukakis

• Senator Donald Riegle of Michigan^[22]

Jesse Jackson

• Senator Ernest Hollings of South Carolina^[23]
• Former Governor Orval Faubus of Arkansas^[24]
• Mayor Bernie Sanders of Burlington, Vermont^[25]
• Mayor Harold Washington of Chicago, Illinois^[26]
• Mayor Richard Arrington Jr. of Birmingham, Alabama^[27]
• Actor and comedian Bill Cosby^[28]
• Activist Paul Wellstone^[29]
• The Nation^[30]

Al Gore

• Georgia House of Representatives Speaker Tom Murphy^[31]
• Texas House of Representatives Speaker Gib Lewis^[32]
• Florida House of Representatives Speaker Jon L. Mills^[32]

Dick Gephardt

• Representative Tony Coelho of California^[33]
• Representative Martin Frost of Texas^[34]
• Representative Marvin Leath of Texas^[34]
• Representative Mike Synar of Oklahoma^[35]
• Representative Claude Pepper of Florida^[36]
• Representative Sander Levin of Michigan^[37]

Gary Hart

• Actor Warren Beatty^[38][39]
• Comedian Steve Martin^[39]
• Actor Jack Nicholson^[39]
• Musician Stephen Stills^[39]
• Actress Debra Winger^[39]

Paul Simon

• The Des Moines Register^[40]

Results

In the Iowa caucuses, Gephardt finished first, Simon finished second, and Dukakis finished third. In the New Hampshire primary, Dukakis finished first, Gephardt finished second, and Simon finished third. Dukakis and Gore campaigned hard against Gephardt with negative ads, and eventually the United Auto Workers retracted their endorsement of Gephardt, who was heavily dependent on labor union backing.

In the Super Tuesday races, Dukakis won six primaries, Gore five, Jackson five and Gephardt one, with Gore and Jackson splitting the southern states. The next week, Simon won Illinois. 1988 is tied with 1992 as the race with the most candidates winning primaries since the McGovern reforms of 1971. Gore's effort to paint Dukakis as too liberal for the general election proved unsuccessful and he eventually withdrew. Jackson focused more on getting enough delegates to make sure African-American interests were represented in the platform than on winning outright.^[41] Dukakis eventually emerged as the party's nominee.

Date[42][43] (daily totals)	Total pledged delegates[44]	Contest	Delegates won and popular vote						Total
			Michael Dukakis	Jesse Jackson	Al Gore	Paul Simon	Dick Gephardt	Others
February 8	45	Iowa caucus[45]	12 27,750	11,000	80	15 33,375	18 39,125	13,625	124,955
February 16	16	New Hampshire[46][47]	8 44,112	9,615	8,400	4 21,094	4 24,513	15,179	122,913
February 23	68	Minnesota[48]	25 8,990	15 5,270	274	13 4,766	1,970	5,281	26,551
	17	South Dakota[48]	7 22,349	3,867	5,993	3,992	10 31,184	4,221	71,606
February 28	20	Maine primary[49]	8 3,170	7 2,722	139	378	282	2,053	8,744
March 1	12	Vermont Caucus[50]	6 582	6 696	6	—	—	120	1,404
March 5	11	Wyoming caucus[51]	4 76	38	4 88	6	3 61	1	270
March 8 (Super Tuesday) (1099)	47	Alabama[52]	31,206	25 176,764	22 151,739	3,063	30,214	12,845	405,831
	32	Arkansas[53]	8 94,103	7 85,003	16 185,758	9,020	59,711	63,949
	101	Florida[54]	68 520,868	33 254,825	161,106	27,592	182,779	121,606
	64	Georgia[55]	97,179	29 247,831	24 201,490	8,388	41,489	26,375
	17	Hawaii caucus[56]	10 2,716	7 1,739	58	46	98	318
	16	Idaho caucus[57]	7 144	4 73	32	16	3	112
	48	Kentucky[58]	11 59,433	9 49,667	27 145,988	9,393	28,982	25,258
	52	Louisiana[59]	10 95,661	23 221,522	18 174,971	5,153	67,029	60,683
	56	Maryland[60]	34 242,479	22 152,642	46,063	16,013	42,059	16,631
	93	Massachusetts[61]	71 418,256	22 133,385	31,631	26,176	72,943	31,552
	40	Mississippi[62]	1 29,941	24 160,651	15 120,364	2,118	19,693	26,650
	71	Missouri[63]	61,303	18 106,386	14,549	21,433	53 305,287	18,857
	12	Nevada caucus[64]	3 427	3 382	4 491	20	33	2 285
	68	North Carolina[65]	16 137,993	25 224,177	27 235,669	8,032	37,553	36,534
	39	Oklahoma[66]	9 66,278	52,417	20 162,584	6,901	10 82,596	21,951
	20	Rhode Island[67]	16 34,159	4 7,369	1,932	1,392	2,013	1,958
	56	Tennessee[68]	19,348	12 119,248	44 416,861	2,647	8,470	9,740
	145	Texas[69]	61 579,713	46 433,335	38 357,764	34,499	240,158	121,576
	62	Virginia[70]	15 80,183	32 164,709	15 81,419	7,045	15,935	15,608
	53	Washington[71]	29 3,784	24 3,083	166	300	78	1,074
	6	American Samoa caucus[72]	4 (39%)	(7%)	—	—	2 (22%)	(32%)
March 10	10	Alaska caucus[73]	3 774	4 882	48	18	15	791
March 12	36	Colorado caucus[74]	17 4,852	13 3,720	307	14	—	6 1,867
	37	South Carolina[75]	1,018	22 8,114	7 2,777	36	307	8 2,853
March 15	160	Illinois[76]	29 245,289	57 484,233	77,265	74 635,219	35,108	23,816
March 19	34[j]	Kansas caucus[77]	15 278	13 235	7 125	—	12	114
March 20	40	Puerto Rico[78]	11 70,733	13 87,757	7 45,361	9 57,639	9,159	3,753
March 26	127	Michigan caucus[79]	45 61,674	82 113,777	4,253	4,466	27,222	326
March 29[80]	63[81]	Connecticut[82]	35 (58%)	17 (28%)	(8%)	(1%)	—	11[k] (5%)
April 5	81[83]	Wisconsin[84]	44 (47%)	24 (30%)	13 (17%)	(5%)	—	(1%)
April 16	36[85]	Arizona caucus[86]	(54%)	(38%)	(5%)	(1%)	—	(2%)
April 18	15[87]	Delaware caucus[88]	51.5 (27.25%)	86.5 (45.77%)	4 (2.12%)	—	—	47 (24.87%)
April 19	243[l]	New York[89]	142 801,457	87 585,076	5 157,559	17,011	–	14,083
April 25	23	Utah caucus[90]	19 (72%)	4 (15%)	–	–	–	(13%)
April 26	161	Pennsylvania[91]	114 1,002,480	47 411,260	44,542	9,692	7,254	32,462
May 3	79[92]	Indiana[93]	63 (70%)	16 (22%)	(3%)	(2%)	(3%)	—
	159[94]	Ohio[95]	115 (63%)	41 (27%)	(2%)	(1%)	–	3 (7%)[m]
	16[96]	Washington, D.C.[97]	3 (18%)	13 (80%)	(1%)	(1%)	–	—
May 10	25	Nebraska[98]	18 (63%)	7 (26%)	(1%)	(1%)	(3%)	(6%)
	37	West Virginia[99]	36 (75%)	1 (13%)	(3%)	(1%)	(2%)	(6%)
May 17	45	Oregon[100]	27 (57%)	18 (38%)	(1%)	(1%)	(2%)	(1%)
June 7	272	California[101]	173 1,910,808	99 1,102,093	56,645	43,771	–	25,417
	19[102]	Montana[103]	15 (69%)	4 (22%)	(2%)	(1%)	(3%)	(3%)
	100	New Jersey[104]	66 414,829	34 213,705	18,062	—	—	7,706
	24	New Mexico[105]	16 (61%)	8 (28%)	(3%)	(2%)	–	(6%)
June 14	?	North Dakota[106]	(85%)	(15%)	–	–	–	–
Total[107]			1,427 10,024,101 (42.37%)	1,046 6,941,816 (29.34%)	307 3,190,992 (13.49%)	115 1,452,331 (6.14%)	98 1,107,692 (4.68%)	940,431 (3.98%)

Convention and general election

Main articles: 1988 Democratic National Convention and 1988 United States presidential election

The Democratic Party Convention was held in Atlanta, Georgia, July 18–21. The Dukakis nominating speech delivered by Arkansas governor and future president Bill Clinton was widely criticized as too long and tedious.^[108]

Texas State Treasurer Ann Richards (who two years later became the state governor) delivered a memorable keynote address in which she uttered the lines "Poor George [Bush], he can't help it, he was born with a silver foot in his mouth." Six years later, Bush's son George W. Bush would deny Richards re-election as Texas Governor.

With most candidates having withdrawn and asking their delegates to vote for Dukakis, the tally for president was as follows:^[109]

• Michael Dukakis - 2,877 (70.09%)
• Jesse Jackson - 1,219 (29.70%)
• Richard Stallings - 3 (0.07%)
• Joe Biden - 2 (0.05%)
• Dick Gephardt - 2 (0.05%)
• Lloyd Bentsen - 1 (0.02%)
• Gary Hart - 1 (0.02%)

Jesse Jackson's campaign believed that since they had come in a respectable second, Jackson was entitled to the vice presidential spot. Dukakis refused, and gave the spot to Lloyd Bentsen.

Bentsen was selected in large part to secure the state of Texas and its large electoral vote for the Democrats. During the vice-presidential debate, Republican candidate and Senator Dan Quayle ignored a head-on confrontation with Bentsen (aside from the "Jack Kennedy" comparison) and spent his time attacking Dukakis.

See also

• 1988 Republican Party presidential primaries

Notes

1. Poll combines first- and second-choice responses.
2. 7% for Tom Bradley, 6% each for Bill Bradley and Jay Rockefeller, 5% for Chuck Robb, 4% for Dianne Feinstein, 2% each for Dale Bumpers, Sam Nunn, Pat Schroeder, and Mark White, 1% each for Bruce Babbitt, Joe Biden, and Dick Gephardt, and <1% for Tony Coelho.
3. 7% each for Bill Bradley and Tom Bradley, 6% for Jay Rockefeller, 3% each for Chuck Robb, Dianne Feinstein, and Mark White. Less than 2% each for Sam Nunn, Pat Schroeder, Dale Bumpers, Bill Clinton, Dick Gephardt, Bruce Babbitt, Joe Biden, and Tony Coelho.
4. Includes 7% for Mario Cuomo and 3% for Ted Kennedy, neither of whom were included in the suggested responses, 1% each for Bill Bradley, Lee Iacocca, Sam Nunn, John Glenn, Terry Sanford, and Howard Baker (Republican).
5. This poll intentionally oversampled voters in border and Southern states in advance of Super Tuesday.
6. Poll of Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, North Carolina, Mississippi, South Carolina, Tennessse, Texas, and Virginia.
7. Including 5% for Pat Schroeder.
8. Including 14% for Sam Nunn.
9. 12% for "someone else."
10. The delegate totals add up to 35.
11. Only 52 of the 63 delegates were awarded via the primary vote according to the article sourced.
12. The delegate total adds up to 234.
13. 1 delegate each for favorite sons Rep. James Traficant, Douglas Applegate and since-withdrawn candidate Gary Hart

References

1. "Kennedy, Citing Senate Goals, Rules Out '88 Presidential Bid". The New York Times. December 20, 1985.
2. Gallup, George Jr. (4 May 1986). "Cuomo gains as Democratic pick". Fort Worth Star-Telegram. p. 200. Retrieved 19 Sep 2022.
3. Gallup, George Jr. (7 Aug 1986). "Iacocca gains on Hart as choice of Democrats". Fort Worth Star-Telegram. p. 27. Retrieved 19 Sep 2022.
4. "Dukakis surging as Hart weakens". 28 Jan 1988. p. 1. Retrieved 6 Aug 2023.
5. "Poll shows Hart on top; Dole closing in on Bush". The Greenville News. 19 Dec 1987. p. 10. Retrieved 19 Sep 2022.
6. "US President - D Primares (Polling)". OurCampaigns. 31 Aug 2018. Retrieved 30 March 2020.
7. "Politics 88 : Dole Tops Bush in Gallup Poll; Dukakis Leads". The Los Angeles Times. 15 Feb 1988. Retrieved 1 May 2022.
8. Bartels, Larry M.; Broh, C. Anthony (Winter 1989). "A Review: The 1988 Presidential Primaries". The Public Opinion Quarterly. 53 (4): 563–589. doi:10.1086/269172. JSTOR 2749359.
9. Mashek, John W. (4 Oct 1987). "Jackson leads, but undecided reigns in South". Atlanta Journal Constitution. p. 1. Retrieved 19 Sep 2022.
10. "California poll shows no front-runner". Desert Dispatch. 11 May 1987. p. 11. Retrieved 19 Sep 2022.
11. Himowitz, Michael J. (27 Oct 1987). "Jackson, Bush leading now among Marylanders". Baltimore Evening Sun. p. 1. Retrieved 19 Sep 2022.
12. Hoy, Anne Q. (5 Nov 1986). "Babbitt buoyed by New Hampshire presidential polls". Arizona Republic. p. 8. Retrieved 19 Sep 2022.
13. John Dillin for The Christian Science Monitor. 23 February 1987 Cuomo's `no' opens door for dark horses
14. E. J. Dionne Jr. (May 3, 1987). "Gary Hart The Elusive Front-Runner". The New York Times, pg. SM28.
15. Johnston, David; King, Wayne; Nordheimer, Jon (1987-05-09). "Courting Danger: The Fall Of Gary Hart". The New York Times.
16. "The Gary Hart Story: How It Happened". The Miami Herald. May 10, 1987. Archived from the original on August 24, 2014. Retrieved November 20, 2014.
17. Bob Drogin for the Los Angeles Times. 16 December 1987 Hart Back in Race for President : Political World Stunned, Gives Him Little Chance
18. Associated Press, in the Los Angeles Times. 13 March 1988 Quits Campaign : 'The People 'Have Decided,' Hart Declares
19. "Biden Is Facing Growing Debate On His Speeches". The New York Times. September 16, 1987.
20. Thompson, Alex; Pager, Tyler (January 19, 2021). "They failed spectacularly in '88. Now, these Biden aides are getting sweet redemption". Politico.
21. "Professional Board Clears Biden In Two Allegations of Plagiarism". The New York Times. May 29, 1989. p. 29.
22. Jack W. Germond; Jules Witcover (1989). "19: Illinois and Michigan: Jesse Jackson Peaks". Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988. Warner Books. p. 298. ISBN 0-446-51424-1. Appearing at the press conference were Michigan Senator Don Riegle and three other members of the state's congressional delegation, all endorsing him.
23. "Jackson: I Deserve More Superdelegates". 17 June 1988.
24. William Raspberry (1988-04-29). "JESSE JACKSON'S VICTORY". The Washington Post. Washington, D.C. ISSN 0190-8286. OCLC 1330888409.
25. Wagner, John (February 15, 2016). "Bernie Sanders highlights his 1988 support of Jesse Jackson's White House run". The Washington Post. Retrieved September 9, 2021.
26. Oreskes, Michael (9 September 1987). "Chicago's Mayor Endorses Jackson". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 December 2019.
27. Jack W. Germond; Jules Witcover (1989). "18: Super Tuesday: A Super Fiasco". Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988. Warner Books. p. 281. ISBN 0-446-51424-1. The black political leaders who had supported Mondale in 1984, such as Mayor Richard Arrington of Birmingham, were now fully in the Jackson camp.
28. "User Clip: Bill Cosby for Jesse Jackson | C-SPAN.org". www.c-span.org. Retrieved 2021-06-21.
29. "Paul Wellstone's Legacy". In These Times. 12 October 2012. Retrieved 2021-06-21.
30. "For Jesse Jackson and His Campaign". The Nation. 1988-04-16. ISSN 0027-8378. Retrieved 2021-06-21.
31. Our Campaigns - GA US President - D Primary Race - Mar 08, 1988
32. Jack W. Germond; Jules Witcover (1989). "18: Super Tuesday: A Super Fiasco". Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988. Warner Books. p. 286. ISBN 0-446-51424-1. ...Gore was moving around the South gathering endorsements - particularly from prominent state politicians such as Speaker Tom Murphy of Georgia, Speaker Gib Lewis of Texas, Speaker Jon Mills of Florida
33. Jack W. Germond; Jules Witcover (1989). "16: Iowa: Dick Gephardt's Hour". Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988. Warner Books. p. 255. ISBN 0-446-51424-1. Congressman Tony Coelho paid a visit and also came back with the view that Gephardt needed a much sharper focus to his message that Iowa voters could identify with
34. Jack W. Germond; Jules Witcover (1989). "18: Super Tuesday: A Super Fiasco". Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988. Warner Books. p. 282. ISBN 0-446-51424-1. The backing of allies such as Representatives Martin Frost and Marvin Leath in Texas...
35. Jack W. Germond; Jules Witcover (1989). "18: Super Tuesday: A Super Fiasco". Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988. Warner Books. p. 282. ISBN 0-446-51424-1. The backing of allies such as Representatives Martin Frost and Marvin Leath in Texas, Mike Synar in Oklahoma...
36. Jack W. Germond; Jules Witcover (1989). "18: Super Tuesday: A Super Fiasco". Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988. Warner Books. p. 282. ISBN 0-446-51424-1. The backing of allies such as Representatives Martin Frost and Marvin Leath in Texas, Mike Synar in Oklahoma and Claude Pepper in Florida was a valued credential.
37. Jack W. Germond; Jules Witcover (1989). "19: Illinois and Michigan: Jesse Jackson Peaks". Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988. Warner Books. p. 299. ISBN 0-446-51424-1. Congressman Sander Levin of Michigan, a Gephardt supporter...
38. Jack W. Germond; Jules Witcover (1989). "13: Too Much Damage to Control". Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988. Warner Books. p. 195. ISBN 0-446-51424-1. There were other phone calls, too, including repeated ones from actor Warren Beatty, a longtime supporter and friend going back to the McGovern campaign of 1971-72
39. "Campaign '88 Gets the Star Treatment". Los Angeles Times. 7 June 1988.
40. Jack W. Germond; Jules Witcover (1989). "16: Iowa: Dick Gephardt's hour". Whose Broad Stripes and Bright Stars? The Trivial Pursuit of the Presidency 1988. Warner Books. p. 263. ISBN 0-446-51424-1. Simon got a lift from the endorsement of the Des Moines Register, influential with the sort of political activists who attended the caucuses.
41. Williams, Juan (1988-07-17). "Waiting for The Jackson Reaction; Will Jesse End His Crusade With a Bang or a Whimper?". The Washington Post. p. C1.
42. "Clipped from Chicago Tribune". Chicago Tribune. 11 March 1992. p. 14.
43. "1992 Presidential Primary Calendar".
44. "Election calendar at a glance". The Times Leader. 14 February 1992. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019 – via Newspapers.com.
45. Robert S. Boyd; Susan Bennett (February 9, 1988). "Dole, Gephardt take Iowa". Google News Search Archive. Spartanburg, SC: Spartanburg Herald-Journal. pp. 1, 3. Retrieved 1 November 2017.
46. Robert S. Boyd; Susan Bennett (February 17, 1988). "Bush, Dukakis score big wins". Google News Search Archive. Spartanburg, SC: Spartanburg Herald-Journal. pp. 1, 4. Retrieved 1 November 2017.
47. New Hampshire. Dept. of State (1989). Manual for the General Court. University of New Hampshire Library. Concord, N.H. : Dept. of State. pp. 132, 153.
48. Robert S. Boyd; Susan Bennett (February 24, 1988). "Dole scores impressive victories". Google News Search Archive. Spartanburg, SC: Spartanburg Herald-Journal. pp. 1, 4. Retrieved 1 November 2017.
49. "Our Campaigns - ME US President - D Caucus Race - Feb. 28, 1988". Our Campaigns.
50. "Vermont Elections Database (Search Elections)". Vermont Secretary of State. Archived from the original (search results: 1976-2016) on 8 November 2017. Retrieved 1 November 2017.
51. "Our Campaigns - WY US President - D Caucus Race - Mar. 05, 1988". Our Campaigns.
52. "Our Campaigns - AL US President - D Primary Race - Mar. 08, 1988". Our Campaigns.
53. "Arkansas Primary Results" (PDF). U.S. Election Atlas (AtlasWiki). Retrieved 3 November 2017.
54. "Florida Department of State (Election Results)" (search results: 1988 Presidential preference primary (Democratic party)). Florida Secretary of State. Retrieved 3 November 2017.
55. "Supplement to the Georgia Official and Statistical Register 1985-1988". Georgia Official and Statistical Register. p. 3. Archived from the original (search results: 1988 Presidential preference primary (Democratic party)) on 8 November 2017. Retrieved 3 November 2017.
56. "Incomplete Statewide Data for Caucuses" (Excel worksheet). U.S. Election Atlas (AtlasWiki). Retrieved 3 November 2017.
57. "Idaho Caucus County Results" (Excel worksheet). U.S. Election Atlas (AtlasWiki). Retrieved 3 November 2017.
58. "Kentucky County Results" (Excel worksheet). U.S. Election Atlas (AtlasWiki). Retrieved 3 November 2017.
59. "Louisiana County Results" (Excel worksheet). U.S. Election Atlas (AtlasWiki). Retrieved 3 November 2017.
60. "1988 Presidential Election". Maryland State Board of Elections. Retrieved 3 November 2017.
61. "Massachusetts County, Congressional District and Town Results" (Excel worksheet). U.S. Election Atlas (AtlasWiki). Retrieved 3 November 2017.
62. "Mississippi County Results" (Excel worksheet). U.S. Election Atlas (AtlasWiki). Retrieved 3 November 2017.
63. "Missouri County Results" (Excel worksheet). U.S. Election Atlas (AtlasWiki). Retrieved 3 November 2017.
64. "Our Campaigns - NV US President - D Caucus - Mar. 08, 1988". Our Campaigns.
65. "Our Campaigns - NC US President - D Primary Race - Mar. 08, 1988". Our Campaigns.
66. "Our Campaigns - OK US President - D Primary Race - Mar. 08, 1988". Our Campaigns.
67. "Our Campaigns - RI US President - D Primary Race - Mar. 08, 1988". Our Campaigns.
68. "Tennessee primary results (1972, 1988, 1992)" (PDF). U.S. Election Atlas (AtlasWiki). p. 5. Retrieved 3 November 2017.
69. "Our Campaigns - TX US President - D Primary Race - Mar. 08, 1988". Our Campaigns.
70. "Our Campaigns - VA US President - D Primary Race - Mar. 08, 1988". Our Campaigns.
71. "Our Campaigns - WA US President - D Caucus Race - Mar. 08, 1988". Our Campaigns.
72. "After Super Tuesday: Caucus Tallies". The New York Times. 10 March 1988. Retrieved 3 November 2017.
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74. "Our Campaigns - CO US President - D Caucus Race - Mar. 12, 1988". Our Campaigns.
75. "Our Campaigns - SC US President - D Primary Race - Mar. 12, 1988". Our Campaigns.
76. Rothberg, Donald M. (March 16, 1988). "Simon win clouds Democratic race". Google News Search Archive. Lawrence Journal-World. p. 1A. Retrieved 7 November 2017.
77. "KS US President - D Caucus Race - Mar. 19, 1988". Our Campaigns.
78. "Bush Wins Puerto Rico Primary and 14 Delegates". New York Times. March 21, 1988. Retrieved 7 November 2017.
79. "Jackson wins in Michigan". Google News Search Archive. Lawrence Journal-World. March 27, 1988. pp. 1A, 13A. Retrieved 7 November 2017.
80. "Dukakis says victory boosts his campaign". Google News Search Archive. The Nashua Telegraph. March 30, 1988. pp. 1, 16. Retrieved 12 November 2023.
81. "With big win, Dukakis drive back in gear". Google News Search Archive. Ellensburg Daily Record. March 30, 1988. p. 8. Retrieved 12 November 2023.
82. "Our Campaigns - CT US President - D Primary Race - Mar. 24, 1988". Our Campaigns.
83. "Dukakis resumes his front-runner status". Google News Search Archive. Ellensburg Daily Record. April 5, 1988. p. 5. Retrieved 12 November 2023.
84. Espo, David (April 6, 1988). "Dukakis slows Jackson, Bush wins easily". Google News Search Archive. Gettysburg Times. pp. 1A, 2A. Retrieved 7 November 2017.
85. "Democrats stump as New York primary nears". Google News Search Archive. Lakeland Ledger. April 17, 1988. p. 5A. Retrieved 23 September 2023. Arizona Democrats, whose favorite son, former Gov. Bruce Babbitt, was an early casualty in the Democratic race, held caucuses on Saturday to allocate 36 delegates.
86. "Our Campaigns - AZ US President - D Caucus Race - Apr. 16, 1988". Our Campaigns.
87. "White Catholics Hold Key in New York". Google News Search Archive. Eugene Register-Guard. April 19, 1988. p. 3A. Retrieved 23 September 2023. The delegates selected Monday will attend the state convention May 23, where Delaware's 15 national convention delegates will be chosen.
88. "Our Campaigns - DE US President - D Caucus Race - Apr. 18, 1988". Our Campaigns.
89. "Dukakis' victory resounding". Google News Search Archive. Newburgh Evening News. April 20, 1988. pp. 1A, 4A. Retrieved 7 November 2017.
90. "Dukakis aims to extend streak; Bush seeks clincher with Pa. win". Google News Search Archive. The Free-Lance Star. April 26, 1988. p. 6. Retrieved 29 November 2023.
91. "Our Campaigns - PA US President - D Primary Race - Apr. 26, 1988". Our Campaigns.
92. "Dukakis wins Indiana, Bayh Overwhelms Rival". Google News Search Archive. Toledo Blade. May 4, 1988. p. 4A. Retrieved 23 September 2023. The state will send 79 delegates to the Democratic convention and 51 to the Republican meeting.
93. "Our Campaigns - IN US President - D Primary Race - May 03, 1988". Our Campaigns.
94. Hallett, Joe (May 4, 1988). "Dukakis Landslide Buries Jackson in Ohio, Indiana; MARTA Levy Wins Easily". Google News Search Archive. Toledo Blade. pp. 1A, 4A. Retrieved 23 September 2023. Mr. Ravolo projected that Mr. Dukakis won 115 of the 159 Ohio delegates up for grabs, with Mr. Jackson garnering 41.
95. "Our Campaigns - OH US President - D Primary Race - May 03, 1988". Our Campaigns.
96. "Dukakis wins Indiana, Bayh Overwhelms Rival". Google News Search Archive. Toledo Blade. May 4, 1988. p. 4A. Retrieved 23 September 2023. Mr. Jackson, who hadn't won a primary since March 20 in Puerto Rico, gained 13 delegates in the district, and Mr. Dukakis, 3.
97. "Our Campaigns - DC US President - D Primary Race - May 03, 1988". Our Campaigns.
98. "Dukakis "working hard to wrap it up" after wins in W. Va., Neb". Google News Search Archive. The Free-Lance Star. May 11, 1988. p. 6. Retrieved 29 November 2023.
99. "Dukakis gains over Jackson, polls show Bush losing steam". Google News Search Archive. The Free-Lance Star. May 11, 1988. p. 19. Retrieved 29 November 2023.
100. "Dukakis "working hard to wrap it up" after wins in W. Va., Neb". Google News Search Archive. The Free-Lance Star. May 18, 1988. p. 6. Retrieved 29 November 2023.
101. "Our Campaigns - CA US President - D Primary Race - Jun 07, 1988". Our Campaigns.
102. "Bush, Dukakis Say the Race is On". Google News Search Archive. Toledo Blade. June 8, 1988. pp. 1A, 5A. Retrieved 23 September 2023. Mr. Dukakis had gained 15 delegates; Mr. Jackson gained 4.
103. "Our Campaigns - MT US President - D Primary Race - Jun 07, 1988". Our Campaigns.
104. "Our Campaigns - NJ US President - D Primary Race - Jun 07, 1988". Our Campaigns.
105. "Our Campaigns - NM US President - D Primary Race - Jun 07, 1988". Our Campaigns.
106. "Our Campaigns - ND US President - D Primary Race - Jun 14, 1988". Our Campaigns.
107. "Our Campaigns - US President - D Primaries Race - Feb 01, 1988". www.ourcampaigns.com. Retrieved 5 April 2018.
108. Brummert, John (1988-07-22). "I just fell on my sword". Arkansas Democrat-Gazette.
109. "Our Campaigns - US President - D Convention Race - Jul 18, 1988". www.ourcampaigns.com. Retrieved 5 April 2018.

External links

• Booknotes interview with Jeanne Simon on Codename: Scarlett – Life on the Campaign Trail by the Wife of a Presidential Candidate, July 23, 1989.
• Booknotes interview with Dayton Duncan on Grass Roots: One Year in the Life of the New Hampshire Presidential Primary, March 31, 1991.