Central Powers

For the World War II alliance, see Axis powers.

The Central Powers, also known as the Central Empires,^{[1][notes 1]} were one of the two main coalitions that fought in World War I (1914–1918). It consisted of the German Empire, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria; this was also known as the Quadruple Alliance.^{[2][notes 2]}

Central Powers
1914–1918
The Central Powers as of 14 October 1915
Status	Military alliance
Membership	Germany  Austria-Hungary  Ottoman Empire  Bulgaria (from 1915)
Historical era	World War I
• Established	1914
• Dissolved	1918
Preceded by Dual Alliance (1879) German–Ottoman alliance Bulgaria–Germany treaty (1915) Triple Alliance (1882)

• Leaders of the Central Powers (left to right):
• Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany;
• Kaiser and King Franz Joseph of Austria-Hungary;
• Sultan Mehmed V of the Ottoman Empire;
• Tsar Ferdinand I of Bulgaria
• The caption reads:
• "Vereinte Kräfte führen zum Ziel"
• ("United Powers Lead to the Goal")

The Central Powers' origin was the alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1879. Despite having nominally joined the Triple Alliance before, Italy did not take part in World War I on the side of the Central Powers and later joined on the side of the Allied Powers. The Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria did not join until after World War I had begun. The Central Powers faced, and were defeated by, the Allied Powers, which themselves had formed around the Triple Entente. They dissolved in 1918 after they lost the war.

Name

The name Central Powers is derived from the location of its member countries; all four were located between the Russian Empire in the east and France and the United Kingdom in the west.^[3]

Collaboration

Germany had plans to create a Mitteleuropa economic association. Members would include Austria-Hungary, Germany, and others.^[4]

History

Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir presumptive to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife, Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, were assassinated on 28 June 1914 by Bosnian Serb student Gavrilo Princip.^[5] This provoked Austria to deliver an ultimatum to Serbia, listing ten demands made intentionally unacceptable to provide an excuse for starting hostilities.^[6] Serbia ordered general mobilization on 25 July, but accepted almost all of the terms, the only ones not accepted were the ones empowering Austrian representatives to suppress "subversive elements" in Serbia, and to take part in the investigation and trial of Serbians linked to the assassination.^[7] After claiming that was rejection, Austria broke off diplomatic relations with Serbia. They then declared war and began shelling Belgrade. Russia ordered general mobilization in support of Serbia on 30 July.^[8] When Russia mobilized, Germany saw it as provocative. Despite Russia's claim that it was responding to the events in Serbia and not Germany, Germany dismissed this and mobilized as well. Later, France, allied with Russia, also mobilized.^[9] On 29 October 1914, the Ottoman Empire entered the war by launching a naval raid on Russian ports.^[10][11] Bulgaria joined the Central Powers last, which it did in October 1915 by declaring war on Serbia.^[12]

Main member states

At the start of the war, the Central Powers consisted of the German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Ottoman Empire joined later in 1914, followed by the Tsardom of Bulgaria in 1915.^[3]

Nation	Date of entry
Austro-Hungarian Empire	28 July 1914
German Empire	1 August 1914
Ottoman Empire	2 August 1914, announced 29 October 1914
Tsardom of Bulgaria	14 October 1915

German Empire

Main articles: German entry into World War I, History of Germany during World War I, and German Empire

See also: German occupation of Belgium during World War I, German occupation of Luxembourg during World War I, German occupation of Estonia during World War I, German occupation of north-east France during World War I, General Government of Belgium, Government General of Warsaw, and German occupation of Byelorussia during World War I

War justifications

German soldiers on the battlefield in August 1914 on the Western Front, shortly after the outbreak of war

German cavalry entering Warsaw in 1915

German battlecruiser SMS Seydlitz heavily damaged after the Battle of Jutland

German Fokker Dr.I fighter aircraft of Jasta 26 at Erchin in German-occupied France

In early July 1914, in the aftermath of the assassination of Austro-Hungarian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and faced with the prospect of war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, Kaiser Wilhelm II and the German government informed the Austro-Hungarian government that Germany would uphold its alliance with Austria-Hungary and defend it from possible Russian intervention if a war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia took place.^[13] When Russia enacted a general mobilization, Germany viewed the act as provocative.^[14]: 39 The Russian government promised Germany that its general mobilization did not mean preparation for war with Germany but was a reaction to the tensions between Austria-Hungary and Serbia.^[14]: 39 The German government regarded the Russian promise of no war with Germany to be nonsense in light of its general mobilization, and Germany, in turn, mobilized for war.^[14]: 39 On 1 August, Germany sent an ultimatum to Russia stating that since both Germany and Russia were in a state of military mobilization, an effective state of war existed between the two countries.^[14]: 95 Later that day, France, an ally of Russia, declared a state of general mobilization.^[14]: 95

In August 1914, Germany attacked Russia, citing Russian aggression as demonstrated by the mobilization of the Russian army, which had resulted in Germany mobilizing in response.^[15]

After Germany declared war on Russia, France, with its alliance with Russia, prepared a general mobilization in expectation of war. On 3 August 1914, Germany responded to this action by declaring war on France.^[16] Germany, facing a two-front war, enacted what was known as the Schlieffen Plan, which involved German armed forces moving through Belgium and swinging south into France and towards the French capital of Paris. This plan was hoped to quickly gain victory against the French and allow German forces to concentrate on the Eastern Front. Belgium was a neutral country and would not accept German forces crossing its territory. Germany disregarded Belgian neutrality and invaded the country to launch an offensive towards Paris. This caused Great Britain to declare war against the German Empire, as the action violated the Treaty of London that both nations signed in 1839 guaranteeing Belgian neutrality.^[17]

Subsequently, several states declared war on Germany in late August 1914, with Italy declaring war on Germany in August 1916,^[18] the United States in April 1917,^[19] and Greece in July 1917.^[20]

Colonies and dependencies

Main article: German colonial empire

Europe

The German Empire had incorporated the province of Alsace-Lorraine, after successfully defeating France in the Franco-Prussian War. However, the province was still claimed by French revanchists,^[21][22] leading to its return to France at the Treaty of Versailles.^[23]

Africa

The German Empire was late to colonization, only beginning overseas expansion in the 1870s and 1880s. Colonization was opposed by much of the government, including chancellor Otto von Bismarck, but it became a colonial power after participating in the Berlin Conference. Then, private companies were founded and began settling parts of Africa, the Pacific, and China. Later these groups became German protectorates and colonies.^[24]

Cameroon was a German colony existing from 1884 until its complete occupation in 1915. It was ceded to France as a League of Nations Mandate at the war's end.^[25]

German East Africa was founded in 1885 and expanded to include modern-day Tanzania (except Zanzibar), Rwanda, Burundi, and parts of Mozambique. It was the only German colony to not be fully conquered during the war, with resistance by commander Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck lasting until November 1918. Later it was surrendered to the Allies in 1919 and split between the Belgian Congo, Portuguese Mozambique, and the newly founded colony of Tanganyika.^[26]

South West Africa, modern-day Namibia, came under German rule in 1885 and was absorbed into South Africa following its invasion in 1915.^[27]

Togoland, now part of Ghana, was made a German protectorate in 1884. However, after a swift campaign, it was occupied by the Allies in 1915 and divided between French Togoland and British Togoland.^[28]

Asia

The Jiaozhou Bay Leased Territory was a German dependency in East Asia leased from China in 1898.^[29] Japanese forces occupied it following the Siege of Tsingtao.^[30]

The Austrian Empire had a foreign concession in Tianjin which was swiftly invaded by China in 1917. The German concessions in Tianjin and Hankou were also invaded.^[31]

Pacific

German New Guinea was a German protectorate in the Pacific. It was occupied by Australian forces in 1914.^[32]

German Samoa had been a German protectorate since the Tripartite Convention.^[33] It was occupied by the New Zealand Expeditionary Force in 1914.^[34]

Austro-Hungarian Empire

Main articles: Austro-Hungarian entry into World War I and Austria-Hungary

See also: Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia, Montenegrin campaign, and Albania during World War I § Austro-Hungarian occupation of Albania (1916–1918)

Austro-Hungarian soldiers in a trench on the Italian front

Austro-Hungarian soldiers marching up Mount Zion in Jerusalem in the Ottoman Empire, during the Middle Eastern campaign

War justifications

Austria-Hungary regarded the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand as having been orchestrated with the assistance of Serbia.^[13] The country viewed the assassination as setting a dangerous precedent of encouraging the country's South Slav population to rebel and threaten to tear apart the multinational country.^[14]: 39 Austria-Hungary sent a formal ultimatum to Serbia demanding a full-scale investigation of Serbian government complicity in the assassination and complete compliance by Serbia in agreeing to the terms demanded by Austria-Hungary.^[13] Serbia submitted to accept most of the demands. However, Austria-Hungary viewed this as insufficient and used this lack of full compliance to justify military intervention.^[13] These demands have been viewed as a diplomatic cover for an inevitable Austro-Hungarian declaration of war on Serbia.^[13]

Russia had warned Austria-Hungary that the Russian government would not tolerate Austria-Hungary invading Serbia.^[13] However, with Germany supporting Austria-Hungary's actions, the Austro-Hungarian government hoped that Russia would not intervene and that the conflict with Serbia would remain a regional conflict.^[13]

Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia resulted in Russia declaring war on the country, and Germany, in turn, declared war on Russia, setting off the beginning of the clash of alliances that resulted in the World War.^[35]

Territory

Austria-Hungary was internally divided into two states with their own governments, joined through the Habsburg throne. Austria, also known as Cisleithania, contained various duchies and principalities but also the Kingdom of Bohemia,^[36] the Kingdom of Dalmatia,^[37] and the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria.^[38] Hungary (Transleithania) was composed of the Kingdom of Hungary^[39] and the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia.^[40] In Bosnia and Herzegovina, sovereign authority was shared by both Austria and Hungary.^[41]

Ottoman Empire

Main articles: Ottoman Empire and Ottoman entry into World War I

Ottoman soldiers in military preparations for an assault on the Suez Canal in 1914

Kaiser Wilhelm II visiting the Turkish cruiser Yavuz Sultan Selim during his stay in Istanbul in October 1917 as a guest of Sultan Mehmed V

War justifications

The Ottoman Empire joined the war on the side of the Central Powers in November 1914. The Ottoman Empire had gained strong economic connections with Germany through the Berlin-to-Baghdad railway project that was still incomplete at the time.^[42] The Ottoman Empire made a formal alliance with Germany signed on 2 August 1914.^[43]: 292 The alliance treaty expected that the Ottoman Empire would become involved in the conflict in a short amount of time.^[43]: 292 However, for the first several months of the war, the Ottoman Empire maintained neutrality though it allowed a German naval squadron to enter and stay near the strait of Bosphorus.^[44] Ottoman officials informed the German government that the country needed time to prepare for conflict.^[44] Germany provided financial aid and weapons shipments to the Ottoman Empire.^[43]: 292

After pressure escalated from the German government demanding that the Ottoman Empire fulfill its treaty obligations, or else Germany would expel the country from the alliance and terminate economic and military assistance, the Ottoman government entered the war with the recently acquired cruisers from Germany, along with their own navy, launching a naval raid on the Russian ports of Odessa, Sevastopol, Novorossiysk, Feodosia, and Yalta,^[10][11] thus engaging in military action in accordance with its alliance obligations with Germany. Shortly after, the Triple Entente declared war on the Ottoman Empire.^[43]: 293

Bulgaria

Main article: Tsardom of Bulgaria (1908–1946)

See also: Bulgaria during World War I, Bulgarian occupation of Serbia (World War I), and Bulgarian occupation of Albania

War justifications

Bulgarian soldiers firing at incoming aircraft

After Bulgaria's defeat in July 1913 at the hands of Serbia, Greece and Romania, it signed a treaty of defensive alliance with the Ottoman Empire on 19 August 1914.^[45] Bulgaria was the last country to join the Central Powers, which it did in October 1915 by declaring war on Serbia.^[12] It invaded Serbia in conjunction with German and Austro-Hungarian forces.^[46]

Bulgaria held claims on the region of Vardar Macedonia then held by Serbia following the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 and the Treaty of Bucharest (1913).^[47] As a condition of entering the war on the side of the Central Powers, Bulgaria was granted the right to reclaim that territory.^[48][49]

Co-belligerents

Flag of the South African Republic

South African Republic

In opposition to offensive operations by Union of South Africa, which had joined the war, Boer army officers of what is now known as the Maritz Rebellion "refounded" the South African Republic in September 1914. Germany assisted the rebels, with some operating in and out of the German colony of German South-West Africa. The rebels were all defeated or captured by South African government forces by 4 February 1915.^[50]

Senussi Order

Flag of the Senussi

The Senussi Order was a Muslim political-religious tariqa (Sufi order) and clan in Libya, previously under Ottoman control, which had been lost to Italy in 1912.^[51] In 1915, they were courted by the Ottoman Empire and Germany, and Grand Senussi Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi declared jihad and attacked the Italians in Libya and the British in Egypt in the Senussi Campaign.^[52]

Sultanate of Darfur

Flag of Darfur

In 1915, the Sultanate of Darfur renounced allegiance to the Sudanese government and aligned with the Ottomans. They were able to contact them via the Senussi. Prior to this they were a British ally. The Anglo-Egyptian Darfur Expedition preemptively invaded to prevent an attack on Sudan.^[53] A small force was sent after the sultan and he was killed in action in November 1916.^[54] The invasion ended with an Anglo-Egyptian victory in November 1916.^[53]

Zaian Confederation

The Zaian Confederation began to fight against France in the Zaian War to prevent French expansion into Morocco.^[55] The fighting lasted from 1914 and continued after the First World War ended, to 1921. The Central Powers (mainly the Germans) began to attempt to incite unrest to hopefully divert French resources from Europe.^[56]

Dervish State

Flag of the Dervish

The Dervish State fought against the British, Ethiopian, Italian, and French Empires between 1896 and 1925.^[57] During World War I, the Dervish State received many supplies from the German and Ottoman Empires to carry on fighting the Allies. However, looting from other Somali tribes in the Korahe raid eventually led to its collapse in 1925.^{[58][59][60][61]}

Client states

Both the Ottomans and Germans had client states, they are listed below.

Client state	State in charge
Poland[62]	Germany
Lithuania[63]	Germany
Belarus[64]	Germany
Ukraine[65]	Germany
Crimea[66]	Germany
Courland and Semigallia[67]	Germany
United Baltic Duchy[68]	Germany
Finland[69]	Germany
Georgia[70]	Germany
Jabal Shammar[71]	Ottoman Empire
Azerbaijan[72]	Ottoman Empire
Qatar[73]	Ottoman Empire
Yemen[74]	Ottoman Empire

Nations supported by the Central Powers

States listed in this section were not officially members of the Central Powers. Still, during the war, they cooperated with one or more Central Powers members on a level that makes their neutrality disputable.

Ethiopia

Lij Iyasu, ruler of Ethiopia until 1916 pictured in his Ottoman-style turban with governor Abdullahi Sadiq

The Ethiopian Empire was officially neutral throughout World War I but widely suspected of sympathy for the Central Powers between 1915 and 1916. At the time, Ethiopia was one of only two fully independent states in Africa (the other being Liberia) and a major power in the Horn of Africa. Its ruler, Lij Iyasu, was widely suspected of harbouring pro-Islamic sentiments and being sympathetic to the Ottoman Empire.^[75] The German Empire also attempted to reach out to Iyasu, dispatching several unsuccessful expeditions to the region to attempt to encourage it to collaborate in an Arab Revolt-style uprising in East Africa. One of the unsuccessful expeditions was led by Leo Frobenius, a celebrated ethnographer and personal friend of Kaiser Wilhelm II. Under Iyasu's directions, Ethiopia probably supplied weapons to the Muslim Dervish rebels during the Somaliland Campaign of 1915 to 1916, indirectly helping the Central Powers' cause.^[76]

The Allies jointly pressured the aristocracy for the designated emperor's removal on the 10th of September, 1916 stating he was a threat to both the Allies and Ethiopia.^[77] Fearing the rising influence of Iyasu and the Ottoman Empire, the Christian nobles of Ethiopia conspired against Iyasu. Iyasu was first excommunicated by the Ethiopian Orthodox Patriarch and eventually deposed in a coup d'état on 27 September 1916. A less pro-Ottoman regent, Ras Tafari Makonnen, was installed on the throne.^[76]

Liechtenstein

Further information: Liechtenstein during World War I

Leopold Freiherr von Imhof, Governor of Liechtenstein from 1914 to 1918

Liechtenstein was officially neutral throughout World War I, though the general population and government was supportive of the Central Powers, particularly Austria-Hungary, of which the two countries had been in a customs union since 1852. However, from September 1914 food deliveries from Austria-Hungary began to decrease, which quickly soured the initial war support.^[78] By 1916 all food deliveries from Austria-Hungary had ceased, which forced Liechtenstein to seek closer ties with Switzerland in order to ensure food deliveries continued.^[78][79] From 1916, Liechtenstein was embargoed by the Entente countries due to their connections to the Central Powers, which caused mass unemployment in the country.^[80] The government remained sympathetic to the Central Powers until 7 November 1918, when the November 1918 Liechtenstein putsch took place and a new government took power.^[81]

Upper Asir

Upper Asir, a sheikdom in Arabia, revolted away from Asir in 1916, possibly with Hejazi aid.^[82] It was led by Hassan bin Ali al-Aidh.^[83] It was then partitioned between the Saudi and the Idrisi on 30 August 1920.^[82]

Kingdom of Greece

The Kingdom of Greece was in a political dispute with Venizelists. The Central Powers supported the royalists until King Constantine's abdication in 1917.^[84]

Romania

Following their armistice with the Central Powers, Romania was involved in the Russian Civil War against both the Whites and the Reds. Romania fought alongside the Central Powers until it rejoined the war against them on November 10, 1918.^[85]

Kelantan

Kelantanese rebels were supported by the Ottoman and German Empires during their anti-colonial uprising against the British Empire in 1915.^[86]

Non-state combatants

Other movements supported the efforts of the Central Powers for their own reasons, such as the radical Irish Nationalists who launched the Easter Rising in Dublin in April 1916; they referred to their "gallant allies in Europe". However, most Irish Nationalists supported the British and allied war effort up until 1916, when the Irish political landscape was changing. In 1914, Józef Piłsudski was permitted by Germany and Austria-Hungary to form independent Polish legions. Piłsudski wanted his legions to help the Central Powers defeat Russia and then side with France and the UK and win the war with them.^[87] Below is a list of these non-state combatants.

• Irish Citizen Army^[88]
• Irish Republican Brotherhood
• Irish Volunteers
• White Guard (Finland)^[89]
• Polish Legions^[90]
• IMRO^[91]
• Ahl Haydara Mansur^[92]

Armistice and treaties

Bulgaria signed an armistice with the Allies on 29 September 1918, following a successful Allied advance in Macedonia.^[93] The Ottoman Empire followed suit on 30 October 1918 in the face of British and Arab gains in Palestine and Syria.^[94] Austria and Hungary concluded ceasefires separately during the first week of November following the disintegration of the Habsburg Empire and the Italian offensive at Vittorio Veneto;^[95][96] Germany signed the armistice ending the war on the morning of 11 November 1918 after the Hundred Days Offensive, and a succession of advances by New Zealand, Australian, Canadian, Belgian, British, French and US forces in north-eastern France and Belgium. There was no unified treaty ending the war; the Central Powers were dealt with in separate treaties.^[97]

Central Powers by date of armistice Country Date Flag Name Bulgaria 29 September 1918 Ottoman Empire 30 October 1918 Austria-Hungary 4 November 1918 Germany 11 November 1918

Central Powers treaties Country Treaty of Results Date Signed Flag Name Germany Versailles Germany was required to demilitarize the Rhineland, to reduce their army to 100,000 men, and the navy to 15,000 sailors, and to pay 132 billion gold marks (US$33 billion). Tanks, submarines, and an air force were all forbidden. 28 June 1919 Austria Saint-Germain 10 September 1919 Bulgaria Neuilly 27 November 1919 Hungary Trianon 4 June 1919 Ottoman Empire/ Turkey Sèvres/Lausanne The Treaty of Sèvres caused resentment among the Turkish populace of the Ottoman Empire and resulted in the outbreak of the Turkish War of Independence, after which the Treaty of Lausanne was signed. 10 August 1920/24 August 1923

• 
  A postcard depicting the flags of the Central Powers' countries
• 
  Poster for a 1916 charity bazaar raising funds for widows and orphans of the Central Power states
• 
  The leaders of the Central Powers in 1914

Leaders

Main article: Leaders of the Central Powers of World War I

Below is a table of the leaders of the Central Powers.

Leaders

Portrait	Leader	Title	Time period
	Franz Joseph I[98]	Emperor of Austria and Apostolic King of Hungary	1848–1916
	Karl I[98]	Emperor of Austria and Apostolic King of Hungary	1916–1918
	Wilhelm II[98]	German Emperor	1888–1918
	Mehmed V[98]	Sultan of the Ottoman Empire	1909–1918
	Mehmed VI[98]	Sultan of the Ottoman Empire	1918–1922
	Ferdinand I[99]	Tsar of Bulgaria	1887–1918
	Ali Dinar[100]	Sultan of Darfur	1899–1916
	Manie Maritz[101]	Leader of the Maritz Rebellion	1914–1915
	Mohammed Abdullah Hassan[102]	Emir of the Dervish State	1896–1920
	Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi[103]	Leader of the Senussi	1902–1933
	Saud bin Abdulaziz[104]	Emir of Jabal Shammar	1908–1920
	Fatali Khan Khoyski[105]	Prime Minister of Azerbaijan	1918–1919
	Pavlo Skoropadskyi[106]	Hetman of Ukraine	1918–1918

Statistics

Proportions of Central Powers' fatalities

Economic statistics of the Central Powers ^{[notes 3][107]}

Country		Population (millions)	Land (million km2)	GDP ($ billion)	GDP per capita ($)
Germany (1914)	Mainland	67.0	0.5	244.3	3,648
	Colonies	10.7	3.0	6.4	601
	Total	77.7	3.5	250.7	3,227
Austria-Hungary (1914)		50.6	0.6	100.5	1,980
Ottoman Empire (1914)		23.0	1.8	25.3	1,100
Bulgaria (1915)		4.8	0.1	7.4	1,527
Total		156.1	6.0	383.9	2,459
Allies, total, November 1914		793.3	67.5	1,096.5
UK, France and Russia only		259.0	22.6	622.8

Military statistics of the Central Powers ^[108]

Country	Mobilized	Killed in action	Wounded	Missing in action	Total casualties	Percentage casualties of total force mobilized
Germany	13,250,000	2,037,000 (13.65%)	6,267,143	1,152,800	9,456,943	71%
Austria-Hungary	7,800,000	1,494,200 (11.82%)	3,620,000	2,200,000	7,314,200	94%
Ottoman Empire	3,056,000	771,884 (10.84%)	763,163	250,000	1,785,000	60%
Bulgaria	1,200,000	75,844 (6.32%)	153,390	27,029	255,263	21%
Total	25,257,321	4,378,928	10,803,533	3,629,829	18,812,290	75%

See also

• Central Powers intervention in the Russian Civil War
• Color books, transcripts of official documents released by each nation early in the war
• Diplomatic history of World War I
• Home front during World War I covering all major countries
• International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)
• Axis powers
• Kaiserreich (disambiguation)
• Spa Conferences (First World War)

Footnotes

1. German: Mittelmächte; Hungarian: Központi hatalmak; Ottoman Turkish: اتفاق دولتري, romanized: İttıfâq Devletleri, Bağlaşma Devletleri; Bulgarian: Централни сили, romanized: Centralni sili
2. German: Vierbund, Ottoman Turkish: دورتلى اِتَّفَاق, romanized: Dörtlü İttıfâq, Hungarian: Központi hatalmak, Bulgarian: Четворен съюз, romanized: Četvoren sūjuz
3. All figures presented are for the year 1913.

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Further reading

• Akin, Yigit. When the War Came Home: The Ottomans' Great War and the Devastation of an Empire (2018)
• Aksakal, Mustafa. The Ottoman Road to War in 1914: The Ottoman Empire and the First World War (2010).
• Brandenburg, Erich. (1927) From Bismarck to the World War: A History of German Foreign Policy 1870–1914 (1927) online.
• Clark, Christopher. The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914 (2013)
• Craig, Gordon A. "The World War I alliance of the Central Powers in retrospect: The military cohesion of the alliance". Journal of Modern History 37.3 (1965): 336–344.
• Dedijer, Vladimir. The Road to Sarajevo, comprehensive history of the assassination with detailed material on the Austrian Empire and Serbia. (1966)
• Fay, Sidney B. The Origins of the World War (2 vols in one. 2nd ed. 1930). online, passim
• Gooch, G. P. Before The War Vol II pp. 373–447 on Berchtold (1939)
• Hall, Richard C. "Bulgaria in the First World War". Historian 73.2 (2011): 300–315. online Archived 27 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine
• Hamilton, Richard F. and Holger H. Herwig, eds. Decisions for War, 1914–1917 (2004), scholarly essays on Serbia, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France, Britain, Japan, Ottoman Empire, Italy, United States, Bulgaria, Romania, and Greece.
• Herweg, Holger H. The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary 1914–1918 (2009).
• Herweg, Holger H., and Neil Heyman. Biographical Dictionary of World War I (1982).
• Hubatsch, Walther. Germany and the Central Powers in the World War, 1914– 1918 (1963) online^{[dead link‍]} Archived 16 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine
• Jarausch, Konrad Hugo. "Revising German History: Bethmann-Hollweg Revisited". Central European History 21#3 (1988): 224–243, historiography JSTOR 4546122
• Pribram, A. F. Austrian Foreign Policy, 1908–18 (1923) pp 68–128.
• Rich, Norman. Great Power Diplomacy: 1814–1914 (1991), comprehensive survey
• Schmitt, Bernadotte E. The coming of the war, 1914 (2 vol 1930) comprehensive history online vol 1; online vol 2, esp vol 2 ch 20 pp 334–382
• Strachan, Hew. The First World War: Volume I: To Arms (2003).
• Tucker, Spencer C., ed. The European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia (1996) 816pp
• Watson, Alexander. Ring of Steel: Germany and Austria-Hungary in World War I (2014)
• Wawro, Geoffrey. A Mad Catastrophe: The Outbreak of World War I and the Collapse of the Habsburg Empire (2014)
• Williamson, Samuel R. Austria-Hungary and the Origins of the First World War (1991)
• Zametica, John. Folly and malice: the Habsburg empire, the Balkans and the start of World War One (London: Shepheard–Walwyn, 2017). 416 pp.