Blood alcohol content

Blood alcohol content (BAC), also called blood alcohol concentration or blood alcohol level, is a measurement of alcohol intoxication used for legal or medical purposes.^[1]

Blood alcohol content
Ethanol
Synonyms	Blood alcohol concentration, blood ethanol concentration, blood alcohol level, blood alcohol
LOINC	5639-0, 5640-8, 15120-9, 56478-1

BAC is expressed as mass of alcohol per volume of blood. In US and many international publications, BAC levels are written as a percentage such as 0.08%, i.e. there is 0.8 grams of alcohol per liter of blood.^[1][2] In different countries, the maximum permitted BAC when driving ranges from the limit of detection (zero tolerance) to 0.08% (0.8 g/L).^[3][2] BAC levels above 0.40% (4 g/L) can be potentially fatal.^[1]

According to Guinness World Records, 1.374% (13.74 g/L) is the highest BAC ever recorded in a human who survived the ordeal.^[4] The record was set in July 2013 by an unidentified Polish man found unconscious by the side of a road in the village of Tarnowska Wola, in south-east Poland. First responders reportedly did not believe the initial BAC readings taken at the scene, possibly due to it being almost 69 times greater than the Polish legal limit of 0.02% (0.2 g/L). However, the reading was later confirmed after the man was transported to a near by hospital.^[4]

Units of measurement

BAC is generally defined as a fraction of weight of alcohol per volume of blood, with an SI coherent derived unit of kg/m³ or equivalently grams per liter (g/L). Countries differ in how this quantity is normally expressed. Common formats are listed in the table below. For example, the US and many international publications present BAC as a percentage, such as 0.05%. This would be interpreted as 0.05 grams per deciliter of blood. This same concentration could be expressed as 0.5‰ or 50 mg% in other countries.^[5]

Sign	Units	Used in
1 percent (%), 1 g%[6]	1 g/dL = 1 cg/mL = 10 g/L = 1 g/100 mL	US, Australia,[6][7] Canada[8]
1 per mille (‰)[a]	1 g/L = 1 mg/mL = 100 mg/1 dL	Austria,[6] Belgium,[6] Bulgaria,[citation needed] Czech Republic,[citation needed] Denmark,[citation needed] France,[6] Germany,[6] Latvia,[citation needed] Lithuania,[citation needed] Netherlands,[citation needed] Poland,[10] Portugal,[citation needed] Romania,[citation needed] Russia,[citation needed] Slovenia,[citation needed] Spain,[6] Sweden,[citation needed] Switzerland,[citation needed] Turkey[citation needed]
1 mg%[6]	1 mg/dL = 0.01 g/L = 1 mg/100 mL	United Kingdom[11] Ireland, Canada, New Zealand[6]

It is also possible to use other units. For example, in the 1930s Widmark measured alcohol and blood by mass, and thus reported his concentrations in units of g/kg or mg/g, weight alcohol per weight blood. Blood is denser than water and 1 mL of blood has a mass of approximately 1.055 grams, thus a mass-volume BAC of 1 g/L corresponds to a mass-mass BAC of 0.948 mg/g. Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Finland, Germany, and Switzerland use mass-mass concentrations in their laws,^[6] but this distinction is often skipped over in public materials,^[12] implicitly assuming that 1 L of blood weighs 1 kg.^[13]

In pharmacokinetics, it is common to use the amount of substance, in moles, to quantify the dose. As the molar mass of ethanol is 46.07 g/mol, a BAC of 1 g/L is 21.706 mmol/L (21.706 mM).^[14]

Effects by alcohol level

Further information: Short-term effects of alcohol consumption

Alcohol level	Effects	Ref
BAC (%)			per mille (‰)	mg (%)
0.01 – 0.05	0.1 – 0.5	10 – 50	Mild relaxation and reduced social inhibition; impaired judgment and coordination	[15]
0.06 – 0.2	0.6 – 2	60 – 200	Emotional swings, impaired vision, hearing, speech, and motor skills	[15]
0.2 – 0.3	2 – 3	200 – 300	Urinary incontinence, vomiting, and symptoms of alcohol intoxication	[16][17]
0.3 – 0.4	3 – 4	300 – 400	Potential total loss of consciousness; signs of severe alcohol intoxication	[16][17]
> 0.4	> 4	> 400	Potentially fatal, may result in a coma or respiratory failure	[16][17]

The magnitude of sensory impairment may vary in people of differing weights.^[18] The NIAAA defines the term "binge drinking" as a pattern of drinking that brings a person's blood alcohol concentration (BAC) to 0.08 grams percent or above.^[15]

Estimation

Direct measurement

Blood samples for BAC analysis are typically obtained by taking a venous blood sample from the arm. A variety of methods exist for determining blood-alcohol concentration in a blood sample.^[19] Forensic laboratories typically use headspace-gas chromatography combined with mass spectrometry or flame ionization detection,^[20] as this method is accurate and efficient.^[19] Hospitals typically use enzyme multiplied immunoassay, which measures the co-enzyme NADH. This method is more subject to error but may be performed rapidly in parallel with other blood sample measurements.^[21]

In Germany, BAC is determined by measuring the serum level and then converting to whole blood by dividing by the factor 1.236. This calculation underestimates BAC by 4% to 10% compared to other methods.^[22]

By breathalyzer

Joke "Breathalyser 'pint'" beer glass, about 2 inches tall, dating from around the time of the introduction of breathalyzers in the United Kingdom, in 1967

Main article: Breathalyzer

The amount of alcohol on the breath can be measured, without requiring drawing blood, by blowing into a breathalyzer, resulting in a breath alcohol content (BrAC). The BrAC specifically correlates with the concentration of alcohol in arterial blood, satisfying the equation BAC_arterial = BrAC × 2251 ± 46. Its correlation with the standard BAC found by drawing venous blood is less strong.^[23] Jurisdictions vary in the statutory conversion factor from BrAC to BAC, from 2000 to 2400. Many factors may affect the accuracy of a breathalyzer test,^[24] but they are the most common method for measuring alcohol concentrations in most jurisdictions.^[25]

By intake

Main article: Pharmacology of ethanol § Modeling

Blood alcohol content can be quickly estimated by a model developed by Swedish professor Erik Widmark in the 1920s.^[26] The model corresponds to a pharmacokinetic single-compartment model with instantaneous absorption and zero-order kinetics for elimination. The model is most accurate when used to estimate BAC a few hours after drinking a single dose of alcohol in a fasted state, and can be within 20% CV of the true value.^[27][28] It is not at all realistic for the absorption phase, and is not accurate for BAC levels below 0.2 g/L (alcohol is not eliminated as quickly as predicted) and consumption with food (overestimating the peak BAC and time to return to zero).^[29][6] The equation varies depending on the units and approximations used, but in its simplest form is given by:^[30]

${\displaystyle EBAC={\frac {A}{V_{d}}}-\beta \times T}$

where:

• EBAC is the estimated blood alcohol concentration (in g/L)
• A is the mass of alcohol consumed (g).
• T is the amount of time during which alcohol was present in the blood (usually time since consumption began), in hours.
• β is the rate at which alcohol is eliminated, averaging around 0.15 g/L/hr.^[31]
• V_d is the volume of distribution (L); typically body weight (kg) multiplied by 0.71 L/kg for men and 0.58 L/kg for women^[32][33] although estimation using TBW is more accurate.^[34]

A standard drink, defined by the WHO as 10 grams of pure alcohol,^[35] is the most frequently used measure in many countries. Examples:

• A 80 kg man drinks 20 grams ethanol. After one hour:

$${\displaystyle EBAC=20/(0.71\cdot 80)-(0.148\cdot 1)\approx 0.204{\text{g/L}}=0.0204\%{\text{BAC}}}$$

• A 70 kg woman drinks 10 grams ethanol. After one hour:

$${\displaystyle EBAC=10/(0.58\cdot 70)-(0.156\cdot 1)\approx 0.098{\text{g/L}}=0.0098\%{\text{BAC}}}$$

In terms of fluid ounces of alcohol consumed and weight in pounds, Widmark's formula can be simply approximated as^[26]

${\displaystyle EBAC=8\times {\text{fl oz}}/{\text{weight in pounds}}-\beta \times T}$

for a man or

${\displaystyle EBAC=10\times {\text{fl oz}}/{\text{weight in pounds}}-\beta \times T}$

for a woman, where EBAC and β factors are given as g/dL (% BAC), such as a β factor of 0.015% BAC per hour.^[26]

By standard drinks

Main article: Standard drink

United States standard drinks of beer, malt liquor, wine, and spirits compared. Each contains about 14 grams or 17.7 mL of ethanol.

The examples above define a standard drink as 0.6 fluid ounces (14 g or 17.7 mL) of ethanol, whereas other definitions exist, for example 10 grams of ethanol.

Approximate blood alcohol percentage (by volume)^[36]
Based on one drink having 0.5 US fl oz (15 mL) alcohol by volume

Drinks	Sex	Body weight
		40 kg 90 lb	45 kg 100 lb	55 kg 120 lb	64 kg 140 lb	73 kg 160 lb	82 kg 180 lb	91 kg 200 lb	100 kg 220 lb	109 kg 240 lb
1	Male	–	0.04	0.03	0.03	0.02	0.02	0.02	0.02	0.02
	Female	0.05	0.05	0.04	0.03	0.03	0.03	0.02	0.02	0.02
2	Male	–	0.08	0.06	0.05	0.05	0.04	0.04	0.03	0.03
	Female	0.10	0.09	0.08	0.07	0.06	0.05	0.05	0.04	0.04
3	Male	–	0.11	0.09	0.08	0.07	0.06	0.06	0.05	0.05
	Female	0.15	0.14	0.11	0.10	0.09	0.08	0.07	0.06	0.06
4	Male	–	0.15	0.12	0.11	0.09	0.08	0.08	0.07	0.06
	Female	0.20	0.18	0.15	0.13	0.11	0.10	0.09	0.08	0.08
5	Male	–	0.19	0.16	0.13	0.12	0.11	0.09	0.09	0.08
	Female	0.25	0.23	0.19	0.16	0.14	0.13	0.11	0.10	0.09
6	Male	–	0.23	0.19	0.16	0.14	0.13	0.11	0.10	0.09
	Female	0.30	0.27	0.23	0.19	0.17	0.15	0.14	0.12	0.11
7	Male	–	0.26	0.22	0.19	0.16	0.15	0.13	0.12	0.11
	Female	0.35	0.32	0.27	0.23	0.20	0.18	0.16	0.14	0.13
8	Male	–	0.30	0.25	0.21	0.19	0.17	0.15	0.14	0.13
	Female	0.40	0.36	0.30	0.26	0.23	0.20	0.18	0.17	0.15
9	Male	–	0.34	0.28	0.24	0.21	0.19	0.17	0.15	0.14
	Female	0.45	0.41	0.34	0.29	0.26	0.23	0.20	0.19	0.17
10	Male	–	0.38	0.31	0.27	0.23	0.21	0.19	0.17	0.16
	Female	0.51	0.45	0.38	0.32	0.28	0.25	0.23	0.21	0.19
Subtract approximately 0.01 every 40 minutes after drinking.

By training

If individuals are asked to estimate their BAC, then given accurate feedback via a breathalyzer, and this procedure is repeated a number of times during a drinking session, studies show that these individuals can learn to discriminate their BAC, to within a mean error of 9 mg/100 mL (0.009% BAC).^[37] The ability is robust to different types of alcohol, different drink quantities, and drinks with unknown levels of alcohol. Trained individuals can even drink alcoholic drinks so as to adjust or maintain their BAC at a desired level.^[38] Training the ability does not appear to require any information or procedure besides breathalyzer feedback, although most studies have provided information such as intoxication symptoms at different BAC levels. Subjects continue to retain the ability one month after training.^[39]

Post-mortem

After fatal accidents, it is common to check the blood alcohol levels of involved persons. However, soon after death, the body begins to putrefy, a biological process which produces ethanol. This can make it difficult to conclusively determine the blood alcohol content in autopsies, particularly in bodies recovered from water.^{[40][41][42][43]} For instance, following the 1975 Moorgate tube crash, the driver's kidneys had a blood alcohol concentration of 80 mg/100 mL, but it could not be established how much of this could be attributed to natural decomposition.^[44] Newer research has shown that vitreous (eye) fluid provides an accurate estimate of blood alcohol concentration that is less subject to the effects of decomposition or contamination.^[45]

Legal limits

Main article: Drunk driving law by country

Map of Europe showing countries' blood alcohol limits as defined in g/dL for the general population

For purposes of law enforcement, blood alcohol content is used to define intoxication and provides a rough measure of impairment. Although the degree of impairment may vary among individuals with the same blood alcohol content, it can be measured objectively and is therefore legally useful and difficult to contest in court. Most countries forbid operation of motor vehicles and heavy machinery above prescribed levels of blood alcohol content. Operation of boats and aircraft is also regulated. Some jurisdictions also regulate bicycling under the influence. The alcohol level at which a person is considered legally impaired to drive varies by country.

Test assumptions

Extrapolation

Retrograde extrapolation is the mathematical process by which someone's blood alcohol concentration at the time of driving is estimated by projecting backwards from a later chemical test. This involves estimating the absorption and elimination of alcohol in the interim between driving and testing. The rate of elimination in the average person is commonly estimated at 0.015 to 0.020 grams per deciliter per hour (g/dL/h),^[46] although again this can vary from person to person and in a given person from one moment to another. Metabolism can be affected by numerous factors, including such things as body temperature, the type of alcoholic beverage consumed, and the amount and type of food consumed.

In an increasing number of states, laws have been enacted to facilitate this speculative task: the blood alcohol content at the time of driving is legally presumed to be the same as when later tested. There are usually time limits put on this presumption, commonly two or three hours, and the defendant is permitted to offer evidence to rebut this presumption.

Forward extrapolation can also be attempted. If the amount of alcohol consumed is known, along with such variables as the weight and sex of the subject and period and rate of consumption, the blood alcohol level can be estimated by extrapolating forward. Although subject to the same infirmities as retrograde extrapolation—guessing based upon averages and unknown variables—this can be relevant in estimating BAC when driving and/or corroborating or contradicting the results of a later chemical test.

Metabolism

Main article: Pharmacology of ethanol § Pharmacokinetics

The pharmacokinetics of ethanol are well characterized by the ADME acronym (absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion). Besides the dose ingested, factors such as the person's total body water, speed of drinking, the drink's nutritional content, and the contents of the stomach all influence the profile of blood alcohol content (BAC) over time. Breath alcohol content (BrAC) and BAC have similar profile shapes, so most forensic pharmacokinetic calculations can be done with either. Relatively few studies directly compare BrAC and BAC within subjects and characterize the difference in pharmacokinetic parameters. Comparing arterial and venous BAC, arterial BAC is higher during the absorption phase and lower in the postabsorptive declining phase.^[47]

Highest levels

See also: List of deaths through alcohol

Date	BAC (%)	Location	Description	Result (died or survived)	Cause of Death (If Died)
1982	1.33 BAC, approximated from 1.51 SAC	Los Angeles, California, USA	A 24-year-old woman was admitted to the UCLA emergency room with a serum alcohol content of 1.51%, corresponding to a blood alcohol content of 1.33%. She was alert and oriented to person and place and survived.[48] Serum alcohol concentration is not equal to nor calculated in the same way as blood alcohol content.[49]	Survived
1984	1.50		A 30-year-old man survived a blood alcohol concentration of 1.5% after vigorous medical intervention that included dialysis and intravenous therapy with fructose.[50]	Survived
1995	1.48	Wrocław, Poland	In 1995, a man from Wrocław, Poland, caused a car accident near his hometown. He had a blood alcohol content of 1.48%; he was tested five times, with each test returning the same reading. He died a few days later of injuries from the accident.[51]	Died	Injuries from a car accident
2004	1.35	Taiwan	In 2004, an unidentified Taiwanese woman died of alcohol intoxication after immersion for twelve hours in a bathtub filled with 40% ethanol. Her blood alcohol content was 1.35%. It was believed that she had immersed herself as a response to the early 2000s outbreak of SARS.[52]	Died	Alcohol intoxication
22 Dec 2010	1.60	Queenstown, South Africa	In South Africa, a man driving a Mercedes-Benz Vito light van containing 15 sheep allegedly stolen from nearby farms was arrested on December 22, 2010, near Queenstown in Eastern Cape. His blood had an alcohol content of 1.6%. Also in the vehicle were five boys and a woman, who were also arrested.[53][dubious – discuss]	Survived
26 Oct 2012	2.23 (possible contamination)	Gmina Olszewo-Borki, Poland	A man from Gmina Olszewo-Borki, Poland, who died in a car accident, recorded a blood alcohol content of 2.23%; however, the blood sample was collected from a wound and thus possibly contaminated.[51]	Died	Injuries from a car accident
26 July 2013	1.374	Alfredówka, Poland	A 30-year-old man from Alfredówka, Poland, was found by Municipal Police Patrol from Nowa Dęba lying in the ditch along the road in Tarnowskiej Woli. At the hospital, it was recorded that the man had a blood alcohol content of 1.374%. The man survived.[54][55]	Survived

Notes

1. In Germany, Finland, Netherlands and Sweden, the local language term promille is used; this is occasionally provided as a courtesy in English texts.^[9]

References

Citations

1. "Blood Alcohol Level". MedlinePlus. National Library of Medicine. 3 December 2020.
2. "Legal BAC limits by country". World Health Organization. Retrieved 12 November 2023.
3. "Drink-drivers in Nepal face the 'smell test' crackdown". Yahoo News. 22 July 2012.
4. "Highest blood alcohol level". Guinness World Records. Archived from the original on 7 December 2024. Retrieved 6 December 2024.
5. "BAC Formats" (PDF). Retrieved 3 November 2023.
6. Jones, AW (July 2011). "Pharmacokinetics of Ethanol - Issues of Forensic Importance". Forensic Science Review. 23 (2): 91–136. PMID 26231237.
7. "Blood alcohol levels". Alcohol and Drug Foundation (Australia). 8 February 2022 [Original date 14 February 2017].
8. "Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC)". Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD Canada). n.d. Retrieved 21 July 2022.
9. "Blood alcohol level (BAL)". Health Research Board (Ireland).
10. "Nietrzeźwość a ryzyko zgonu w wypadku komunikacyjnym = Insobriety and the risk of death in traffic accident | Journal of Education, Health and Sport". Journal of Education, Health and Sport (in Polish). 15 October 2019.
11. "The drink drive limit". GOV.UK. Retrieved 3 November 2023.
12. "Drink-driving: What are the rules?". www.ch.ch.
13. Nager, Anna (4 May 2020). "Alkoholpromille, beräkning" [Calculation of alcohol per mille]. Netdoktor (in Swedish). Retrieved 13 April 2024. I detta sammanhang räknar man med att 1 liter blod väger 1 kilo. [In this context, it is assumed that 1 liter of blood weighs 1 kilogram.]
14. "Ethanol". pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 3 November 2023.
15. "Quick Stats: Binge Drinking." The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. April 2008..
16. Dasgupta, Amitava (1 January 2017), "Alcohol a double-edged sword: Health benefits with moderate consumption but a health hazard with excess alcohol intake", in Dasgupta, Amitava (ed.), Alcohol, Drugs, Genes and the Clinical Laboratory: An Overview for Healthcare and Safety Professionals, Academic Press, pp. 1–21, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-805455-0.00001-4, ISBN 978-0-12-805455-0, retrieved 24 May 2023
17. Haghparast, Parna; Tchalikian, Tina N. (1 January 2022), "Alcoholic beverages and health effects", Reference Module in Biomedical Sciences, Elsevier, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-824315-2.00244-x, ISBN 978-0-12-801238-3, retrieved 24 May 2023
18. Dunn, Richard A.; Tefft, Nathan W. (2014). "Has Increased Body Weight Made Driving Safer?". Health Economics. 23 (11): 1374–1389. doi:10.1002/hec.2991. PMC 4135023. PMID 24038409.
19. Dubowski, Kurt M. (1 November 1980). "Alcohol Determination in the Clinical Laboratory". American Journal of Clinical Pathology. 74 (5): 747–750. doi:10.1093/ajcp/74.5.747. PMID 7446484.
20. Zamengo, Luca; Tedeschi, Gianpaola; Frison, Giampietro; Griffoni, Carlo; Ponzin, Diego; Jones, Alan Wayne (1 February 2019). "Inter-laboratory proficiency results of blood alcohol determinations at clinical and forensic laboratories in Italy". Forensic Science International. 295: 213–218. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2018.12.018. ISSN 0379-0738. PMID 30611561. S2CID 58591654.
21. "Hospital Blood Alcohol Lab Results: Are They Forensically Reliable?". Law Offices of Christopher L. Baxter. 30 April 2020.
22. Jones, Alan Wayne (22 March 2024). "Concentration units used to report blood‐ and breath‐alcohol concentration for legal purposes differ between countries which is important to consider when blood/breath ratios of alcohol are compared and contrasted". Journal of Forensic Sciences. doi:10.1111/1556-4029.15511.
23. Lindberg, L.; Brauer, S.; Wollmer, P.; Goldberg, L.; Jones, A.W.; Olsson, S.G. (May 2007). "Breath alcohol concentration determined with a new analyzer using free exhalation predicts almost precisely the arterial blood alcohol concentration". Forensic Science International. 168 (2–3): 200–207. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2006.07.018. PMID 16978819.
24. Jones, AW; Cowan, JM (3 August 2020). "Reflections on variability in the blood-breath ratio of ethanol and its importance when evidential breath-alcohol instruments are used in law enforcement". Forensic Sciences Research. 5 (4): 300–308. doi:10.1080/20961790.2020.1780720. PMC 7782040. PMID 33457048.
25. Williams, Paul M. (1 December 2018). "Current defence strategies in some contested drink-drive prosecutions: Is it now time for some additional statutory assumptions?". Forensic Science International. 293: e5–e9. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2018.09.030. PMID 30342920.
26. Ed Kuwatch. "Fast Eddie's 8/10 Method of Hand Calculating Blood Alcohol Concentration: A Simple Method For Using Widmark's Formula". Archived from the original on 2 December 2003.
27. Zuba, Dariusz; Piekoszewski, Wojciech (2004). "Uncertainty in Theoretical Calculations of Alcohol Concentration". Proc. 17th Internat. Conf. on Alcohol, Drugs and Traffic Safety.
28. Gullberg, Rod G. (October 2007). "Estimating the uncertainty associated with Widmark's equation as commonly applied in forensic toxicology". Forensic Science International. 172 (1): 33–39. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2006.11.010. PMID 17210238.
29. Searle, John (January 2015). "Alcohol calculations and their uncertainty". Medicine, Science and the Law. 55 (1): 58–64. doi:10.1177/0025802414524385. PMC 4361698. PMID 24644224.
30. Maskell, Peter D.; Jones, A. Wayne; Heymsfield, Steven B.; Shapses, Sue; Johnston, Atholl (November 2020). "Total body water is the preferred method to use in forensic blood-alcohol calculations rather than ethanol's volume of distribution". Forensic Science International. 316: 110532. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2020.110532. PMID 33099270. S2CID 224966411.
31. Jones, Alan Wayne (July 2010). "Evidence-based survey of the elimination rates of ethanol from blood with applications in forensic casework". Forensic Science International. 200 (1–3): 1–20. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2010.02.021. PMID 20304569.
32. Maskell, Peter D.; Heymsfield, Steven B.; Shapses, Sue; Limoges, Jennifer F. (September 2023). "Population ranges for the volume of distribution ( V_d ) of alcohol for use in forensic alcohol calculations". Journal of Forensic Sciences. 68 (5): 1843–1845. doi:10.1111/1556-4029.15317. PMID 37345356.
33. Maskell, Peter D.; Cooper, Gail A. A. (September 2020). "The Contribution of Body Mass and Volume of Distribution to the Estimated Uncertainty Associated with the Widmark Equation". Journal of Forensic Sciences. 65 (5): 1676–1684. doi:10.1111/1556-4029.14447. PMID 32421216. S2CID 218677989.
34. Maskell, Peter D.; Jones, A. Wayne; Heymsfield, Steven B.; Shapses, Sue; Johnston, Atholl (November 2020). "Total body water is the preferred method to use in forensic blood-alcohol calculations rather than ethanol's volume of distribution". Forensic Science International. 316: 110532. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2020.110532. PMID 33099270. S2CID 224966411.
35. "AUDIT The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (Second Edition)" (pdf). WHO. 2001. Retrieved 2 January 2020.
36. BAC Charts Archived June 30, 2007, at the Wayback Machine from Virginia Tech
37. Huber, H; Karlin, R; Nathan, P E (January 1976). "Blood alcohol level discrimination by nonalcoholics. The role of internal and external cues". Journal of Studies on Alcohol. 37 (1): 27–39. doi:10.15288/jsa.1976.37.27. PMID 2811.
38. Rowan, D. C. (March 1978). "The Role of Blood Alcohol Level Estimation in Training Alcoholics to become Controlled Drinkers". British Journal of Addiction to Alcohol & Other Drugs. 73 (3): 316–318. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1978.tb00159.x. PMID 280356.
39. Kelly, Alexandra R.; Fillmore, Mark T. (24 August 2023). "Use of mindfulness training to improve BAC self-estimation during a drinking episode". Psychology of Addictive Behaviors. doi:10.1037/adb0000955. PMC 10907993. PMID 37616096. S2CID 261098937.
40. Kugelberg, Fredrik C.; Jones, Alan Wayne (5 January 2007). "Interpreting results of ethanol analysis in postmortem specimens: A review of the literature". Forensic Science International. 165 (1): 10–27. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2006.05.004. PMID 16782292. Retrieved 20 May 2020.
41. Xie, Y.; Deng, Z. H. (2010). "Analysis of alcohol mass concentration in corpse blood". Fa Yi Xue Za Zhi. 26 (1): 59–63. PMID 20232748.
42. Felby, S.; Nielsen, E. (1993). "Postmortem blood alcohol concentration". Blutalkohol. 30 (4): 244–250. PMID 8373563.
43. Cowan, Dallas M.; Maskrey, Joshua R.; Fung, Ernest S.; Woods, Tyler A.; Stabryla, Lisa M.; Scott, Paul K.; Finley, Brent L. (2016). "Best-practices approach to determination of blood alcohol concentration (BAC) at specific time points: Combination of ante-mortem alcohol pharmacokinetic modeling and post-mortem alcohol generation and transport considerations". Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology. 78: 24–36. doi:10.1016/j.yrtph.2016.03.020. PMID 27041394.
44. "Moorgate Alcohol Finding". The Guardian. 16 April 1975. p. 24.
45. Savini, F; Tartaglia, A; Coccia, L; Palestini, D; D'Ovidio, C; de Grazia, U; Merone, GM; Bassotti, E; Locatelli, M (12 June 2020). "Ethanol Determination in Post-Mortem Samples: Correlation between Blood and Vitreous Humor Concentration". Molecules (Basel, Switzerland). 25 (12). doi:10.3390/molecules25122724. PMC 7355602. PMID 32545471.
46. Montgomery, Mark R.; Reasor, Mark J. (1992). "Retrograde extrapolation of blood alcohol data: An applied approach". Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. 36 (4): 281–92. Bibcode:1992JTEHA..36..281M. doi:10.1080/15287399209531639. PMID 1507264.
47. Jones, Alan W. (September 2019). "Alcohol, its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion in the body and pharmacokinetic calculations". WIREs Forensic Science. 1 (5). doi:10.1002/wfs2.1340.
48. Johnson, R (1982). "Survival After a Serum Ethanol Concentration of 11/2%". The Lancet. 320 (8312): 1394. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(82)91285-5. PMID 6129476. S2CID 27551241.
49. Labianca, Dominick A. (2002). "Conversion of Serum-Alcohol Concentrations to Corresponding Blood-Alcohol Concentrations". Journal of Chemical Education. 79 (7): 803. Bibcode:2002JChEd..79..803L. doi:10.1021/ed079p803.
50. O'Neill, Shane; Tipton, KF; Prichard, JS; Quinlan, A (1984). "Survival After High Blood Alcohol Levels: Association with First-Order Elimination Kinetics". Archives of Internal Medicine. 144 (3): 641–2. doi:10.1001/archinte.1984.00350150255052. PMID 6703836.
51. Łuba, Marcin (24 October 2012). "Śmiertelny rekord: Kierowca z powiatu ostrołęckiego miał 22 promile alkoholu! Zginął w wypadku". eOstroleka.pl (in Polish). Retrieved 4 November 2017.
52. Wu, Yen-Liang; Guo, How-Ran; Lin, Hung-Jung (2005). "Fatal alcohol immersion during the SARS epidemic in Taiwan". Forensic Science International. 149 (2–3): 287. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.06.014. PMC 7131152. PMID 15749375.
53. Mashaba, Sibongile (24 December 2010). "Drunkest driver in SA arrested". Sowetan. Retrieved 31 March 2022.
54. "Miał 13,74 promila alkoholu we krwi. I przeżył. Rekord świata?" [He had 13.74 blood alcohol levels. And he survived. World record?]. Archived from the original on 11 August 2013. Retrieved 8 August 2013.
55. "Informacje".

General and cited references

• Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh. Science and Technology Department. The Handy Science Answer Book. Pittsburgh: The Carnegie Library, 1997. ISBN 978-0-7876-1013-5.
• Perham, Nick; Moore, Simon C.; Shepherd, Jonathan; Cusens, Bryany (2007). "Identifying drunkenness in the night-time economy". Addiction. 102 (3): 377–80. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01699.x. PMID 17298644.
• Taylor, L., and S. Oberman. Drunk Driving Defense, 6th edition. New York: Aspen Law and Business, 2006. ISBN 978-0-7355-5429-0.

External links

• Estimated alcohol