V speeds

In aviation, V-speeds are standard terms used to define airspeeds important or useful to the operation of all aircraft.^[1] These speeds are derived from data obtained by aircraft designers and manufacturers during flight testing for aircraft type-certification. Using them is considered a best practice to maximize aviation safety, aircraft performance, or both.^[2]

A single-engined Cessna 150L's airspeed indicator indicating its V-speeds in knots

The actual speeds represented by these designators are specific to a particular model of aircraft. They are expressed by the aircraft's indicated airspeed (and not by, for example, the ground speed), so that pilots may use them directly, without having to apply correction factors, as aircraft instruments also show indicated airspeed.

In general aviation aircraft, the most commonly used and most safety-critical airspeeds are displayed as color-coded arcs and lines located on the face of an aircraft's airspeed indicator. The lower ends of the white arc and the green arc are the stalling speed with wing flaps in landing configuration, and stalling speed with wing flaps retracted, respectively. These are the stalling speeds for the aircraft at its maximum weight.^[3][4] The yellow band is the range in which the aircraft may be operated in smooth air, and then only with caution to avoid abrupt control movement. The red line is the V_NE, the never-exceed speed.

Proper display of V-speeds is an airworthiness requirement for type-certificated aircraft in most countries.^[5][6]

Regulations

The most common V-speeds are often defined by a particular government's aviation regulations. In the United States, these are defined in title 14 of the United States Code of Federal Regulations, known as the Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs).^[7] In Canada, the regulatory body, Transport Canada, defines 26 commonly used V-speeds in their Aeronautical Information Manual.^[8] V-speed definitions in FAR 23, 25 and equivalent are for designing and certification of airplanes, not for their operational use. The descriptions below are for use by pilots.

Regulatory V-speeds

These V-speeds are defined by regulations. They are typically defined with constraints such as weight, configuration, or phases of flight. Some of these constraints have been omitted to simplify the description.

V-speed designator	Description
V1	The speed beyond which takeoff should no longer be aborted (see § V1 definitions below).[7][8][9]
V2	Takeoff safety speed. The speed at which the aircraft may safely climb with one engine inoperative.[7][8][9]
V2min	Minimum takeoff safety speed.[7][8][9]
V3	Flap retraction speed.[8][9]
V4	Steady initial climb speed. The all engines operating take-off climb speed used to the point where acceleration to flap retraction speed is initiated. Should be attained by a gross height of 400 ft (120 m).[10]
VA	Design maneuvering speed. This is the speed above which it is unwise to make full application of any single flight control (or "pull to the stops") as it may generate a force greater than the aircraft's structural limitations.[7][8][9][11]
Vat	Indicated airspeed at threshold, which is usually equal to the stall speed VS0 multiplied by 1.3 or stall speed VS1g multiplied by 1.23 in the landing configuration at the maximum certificated landing mass, though some manufacturers apply different criteria. If both VS0 and VS1g are available, the higher resulting Vat shall be applied.[12] Also called "approach speed". Also known as Vth[13][14] Davies defines Vat and Vref as equivalent.[15]
VB	Design speed for maximum gust intensity.[7][8][9]
VC	Design cruise, also known as the optimum cruise speed, is the most efficient speed in terms of distance, speed and fuel usage.[16][17][18]
Vcef	See V1; generally used in documentation of military aircraft performance. Denotes "critical engine failure" speed as the speed during takeoff where the same distance would be required to either continue the takeoff or abort to a stop.[19]
VD	Design diving speed, the highest speed planned to be achieved in testing.[7][8][9]
VDF	Demonstrated flight diving speed, the highest actual speed achieved in testing.[7][8][9]
VEF	The speed at which the critical engine is assumed to fail during takeoff.[7]
VF	Designed flap speed.[7][8][9]
VFC	Maximum speed for stability characteristics.[7][9]
VFE	Maximum flap extended speed.[7][8][9]
VFTO	Final takeoff speed.[7]
VH	Maximum speed in level flight at maximum continuous power.[7][8][9]
VLE	Maximum landing gear extended speed. This is the maximum speed at which a retractable gear aircraft should be flown with the landing gear extended.[7][8][9][20]
VLO	Maximum landing gear operating speed. This is the maximum speed at which the landing gear on a retractable gear aircraft should be extended or retracted.[7][9][20]
VLOF	Lift-off speed.[7][9]
VMC	Minimum control speed. The minimum speed at which the aircraft is still controllable with the critical engine inoperative.[7] Like the stall speed, there are several important variables that are used in this determination. Refer to the minimum control speed article for a thorough explanation. VMC is sometimes further refined into more discrete V-speeds e.g. VMCA,VMCG.
VMCA	Minimum control speed air. The minimum speed that the aircraft is still controllable with the critical engine inoperative[21] while the aircraft is airborne. VMCA is sometimes simply referred to as VMC.
VMCG	Minimum control speed ground. The minimum speed that the aircraft is still controllable with the critical engine inoperative[21] while the aircraft is on the ground.
VMCL	Minimum control speed in the landing configuration with one engine inoperative.[9][21]
VMO	Maximum operating limit speed.[7][8][9] Exceeding VMO may trigger an overspeed alarm.[22]
VMU	Minimum unstick speed.[7][8][9]
VNE	Never exceed speed.[7][8][9][23] In a helicopter, this is chosen to prevent retreating blade stall and prevent the advancing blade from going supersonic.
VNO	Maximum structural cruising speed or maximum speed for normal operations. Speed at which exceeding the limit load factor may cause permanent deformation of the aircraft structure.[7][8][9][24]
VO	Maximum operating maneuvering speed.[25]
VR	Rotation speed. The speed at which the pilot begins to apply control inputs to cause the aircraft nose to pitch up, after which it will leave the ground.[7][26][Note 1]
Vrot	Used instead of VR (in discussions of the takeoff performance of military aircraft) to denote rotation speed in conjunction with the term Vref (refusal speed).[19]
VRef	Landing reference speed or threshold crossing speed.[7][8][9] Must be at least 1.3 VS0. Must be at least VMC for reciprocating-engine aircraft, or 1.05 VMC for commuter category aircraft.[28] In discussions of the takeoff performance of military aircraft, the term Vref stands for refusal speed. Refusal speed is the maximum speed during takeoff from which the air vehicle can stop within the available remaining runway length for a specified altitude, weight, and configuration.[19] Incorrectly, or as an abbreviation, some documentation refers to Vref and/or Vrot speeds as "Vr."[29]
VS	Stall speed or minimum steady flight speed for which the aircraft is still controllable.[7][8][9]
VS0	Stall speed or minimum flight speed in landing configuration.[7][8][9]
VS1	Stall speed or minimum steady flight speed for which the aircraft is still controllable in a specific configuration.[7][8]
VSR	Reference stall speed.[7]
VSR0	Reference stall speed in landing configuration.[7]
VSR1	Reference stall speed in a specific configuration.[7]
VSW	Speed at which the stall warning will occur.[7]
VTOSS	Category A rotorcraft takeoff safety speed.[7][23]
VX	Speed that will allow for best angle of climb.[7][8]
VY	Speed that will allow for the best rate of climb.[7][8]

Other V-speeds

Some of these V-speeds are specific to particular types of aircraft and are not defined by regulations.

V-speed designator	Description
VAPP	Approach speed. Speed used during final approach with landing flap set.[30] VREF plus safety increment,[31][32][33] typically minimum 5 knots,[34] and maximum 15 knots[30] to avoid exceeding flap limiting speeds. Typically it is calculated as half the headwind component plus the gust factor.[30] The purpose is to ensure that turbulence or gusts will not result in the airplane flying below VREF at any point on the approach.[30] Also known as VFLY.
VBE	Best endurance speed – the speed that gives the greatest airborne time for fuel consumed.[citation needed]
VBG	Best power-off glide speed – the speed that provides maximum lift-to-drag ratio and thus the greatest gliding distance available.
VBR	Best range speed – the speed that gives the greatest range for fuel consumed – often identical to Vmd.[35]
VFS	Final segment of a departure with one powerplant failed.[36]
Vimd	Minimum drag[37]
Vimp	Minimum power[37]
VLLO	Maximum landing light operating speed – for aircraft with retractable landing lights.[9]
VLS	Lowest selectable speed[38]
Vmbe	Maximum brake energy speed[37][39]
Vmd	Minimum drag (per lift) – often identical to VBE.[35][39] (alternatively same as Vimd[40])
Vmin	Minimum speed for instrument flight (IFR) for helicopters[23]
Vmp	Minimum power[39]
Vms	Minimum sink speed at median wing loading – the speed at which the minimum descent rate is obtained. In modern gliders, Vms and Vmc have evolved to the same value.[41]
Vp	Aquaplaning speed[39]
VPD	Maximum speed at which whole-aircraft parachute deployment has been demonstrated[42]
Vra	Rough air speed (turbulence penetration speed).[9]
VSL	Stall speed in a specific configuration[9][39]
Vs1g	Stall speed at 1g load factor[43]
Vsse	Safe single-engine speed[44]
Vt	Threshold speed[39]
VTD	Touchdown speed[45]
VTGT	Target speed[citation needed]
VTO	Take-off speed. (see also VLOF)[46]
Vtocs	Take-off climbout speed (helicopters)[23]
Vtos	Minimum speed for a positive rate of climb with one engine inoperative[39]
Vtmax	Max threshold speed[39][47]
Vwo	Maximum window or canopy open operating speed[48]
VXSE	Best angle of climb speed with a single operating engine in a light, twin-engine aircraft – the speed that provides the most altitude gain per unit of horizontal distance following an engine failure, while maintaining a small bank angle that should be presented with the engine-out climb performance data.[44]
VYSE	Best rate of climb speed with a single operating engine in a light, twin-engine aircraft – the speed that provides the most altitude gain per unit of time following an engine failure, while maintaining a small bank angle that should be presented with the engine-out climb performance data.[20][44]
VZF	Minimum zero flaps speed[49]
VZRC	Zero rate of climb speed. The aircraft is at sufficiently low speed on the "back of the drag curve" that it cannot climb, accelerate, or turn, so must reduce drag.[39] The aircraft cannot be recovered without loss of height.[15]: 144–145

Mach numbers

Whenever a limiting speed is expressed by a Mach number, it is expressed relative to the local speed of sound, e.g. V_MO: Maximum operating speed, M_MO: Maximum operating Mach number.^[7][8]

V1 definitions

V₁ is the critical engine failure recognition speed or takeoff decision speed. It is the speed above which the takeoff will continue even if an engine fails or another problem occurs, such as a blown tire.^[9] The speed will vary among aircraft types and varies according to factors such as aircraft weight, runway length, wing flap setting, engine thrust used and runway surface contamination; thus, it must be determined by the pilot before takeoff. Aborting a takeoff after V₁ is strongly discouraged because the aircraft may not be able to stop before the end of the runway, thus suffering a runway overrun.^[50]

V₁ is defined differently in different jurisdictions, and definitions change over time as aircraft regulations are amended.

• The US Federal Aviation Administration and the European Union Aviation Safety Agency define it as: "the maximum speed in the takeoff at which the pilot must take the first action (e.g., apply brakes, reduce thrust, deploy speed brakes) to stop the airplane within the accelerate-stop distance. V₁ also means the minimum speed in the takeoff, following a failure of the critical engine at V_EF, at which the pilot can continue the takeoff and achieve the required height above the takeoff surface within the takeoff distance."^[7] V₁ thus includes reaction time.^[26] In addition to this reaction time, a safety margin equivalent to 2 seconds at V₁ is added to the accelerate-stop distance.^[51][52]
• Transport Canada defines it as: "Critical engine failure recognition speed" and adds: "This definition is not restrictive. An operator may adopt any other definition outlined in the aircraft flight manual (AFM) of TC type-approved aircraft as long as such definition does not compromise operational safety of the aircraft."^[8]

See also

• ICAO recommendations on use of the International System of Units
• Balanced field takeoff

Notes

1. Most pilots often call out "rotate," instead of V_R. The "rotate" callout has the same meaning of V_R and V_rot.^[27]

References

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30. Brenner, Thiago Lopes (15 May 2021). Aircraft Performance Weight and Balance. Thiago Lopes Brenner. p. 245. ISBN 979-8-5678-1522-9. Retrieved 26 October 2022.
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40. "Transportation Safety Board of Canada – A05W0109". 27 July 2006. Retrieved 26 March 2010.
41. "Wills Wing Hang Glider Mfg". 25 September 2014. Retrieved 31 May 2016.
42. "SR20 Pilot's Operating Handbook". Cirrus Design. 2004: 8. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
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44. Flight Sim Aviation (2009). "Aviation Rules of Thumb – V-Speeds Abbreviations List". Retrieved 19 January 2009.
45. E.G. Tulapurkara, Chapter 10 Performance analysis VI – Take-off and landing, retrieved 18 November 2015
46. "C-130 Takeoff and Landing Data Card" (PDF). Elite Electronic Engineering, Inc. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 August 2018. Retrieved 18 August 2018.
47. "VTMAX". The Free Dictionary. 2009. Retrieved 19 January 2009.
48. Blue Ridge Air Works (n.d.). "Cessna 152 – 4843H General Info". Archived from the original on 5 July 2008. Retrieved 13 February 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: year (link)
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50. "Takeoff Safety Training Aid" (PDF). Federal Aviation Administration. p. 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 18 June 2015. V1. [...](1) The maximum speed by which a rejected takeoff must be initiated to assure that a safe stop can be completed within the remaining runway, or runway and stopway;
51. "Code of Federal Regulations. Title 14 Chapter I Subchapter C Part 25 Subpart B Performance, Section 25.109 Accelerate-stop distance". ecfr.gov. Federal Register. Retrieved 12 October 2022.
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Further reading

• Getting to grips with aircraft performance (PDF). Airbus Customer Services. January 2002. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)