User:RobbyGreg/Wilton culture

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Wilton is a term archaeologists use to generalize archaeological sites and cultures that share similar stone and non-stone technology. Archaeologists often refer to Wilton as a technocomplex (Archaeological culture), or Industry (archaeology). Technological industries are defined by a common tradition of making artifacts, most commonly stone artifacts but include other materials like ceramic when they are present.^[1] Archaeologists use these industries to define a discrete cultural taxonomy.^[1] Originally defined from archaeological assemblages recovered from Wilton rock shelter in 1921, archaeologists use Wilton to refer to stone age foraging and pastoral communities in eastern and southern Africa that are associated with small stone tools and an increase in the number of formal stone tools like scrappers and backed segment.^[2][3] Archaeologists initially recognized Wilton foraging communities from the Holocene beginning 8,000 years ago up through the Iron Age until 500 years ago^[2][4], though recent studies separate Wilton from the final late Stone Age at 4,000 years ago.^[5] Despite Wilton as a term meant to generalize the behaviors of human populations, foraging communities that utilized Wilton-like technology and exhibited Wilton-like behaviors can be found in near-coastal^[6][2], inland^[7][8][9], and montane environments^[10][11]. These diverse landscapes contradict the specificity of Wilton culture that archaeologists had hoped to encompass with this term. In fact, archaeological deposits and isotopic data show that Wilton foragers used a wide range of technologies and exhibited diverse behaviors^[2][8].

Early accounts of Wilton archaeological assemblages posit that similar technology equates to identical cultural identities, suggesting prehistoric communities represented a single culture that ranged from southernmost South Africa to as north as Zambia.^{[12][13][8][7]} Specifically, archaeologists characterize Wilton by a greater variety of Stone tools and smaller, more formal, stone technology, distinguishing it from its predecessor, Oakhurst.^[14][15] Oakhurst technology is defined as a technological industry that contains few formal tools and large stone tools, especially large stone scrappers^[16][5]. Wilton is also distinguished by the rare preservation of biological objects such as bone and wooden technologies.^[17] Previous technological industries likely used biological tools like bone and wooden implements, but since biological remains do not survive in the archaeological record, archaeologists are not able to always use these biological tools to define technological industries. It is these changes in stone and non-stone technology that imply changes in cultural behaviors of foragers at these sites and thus, have caused some archaeologists to recognize Wilton technology as a single cultural entity^[18][19].

Wilton-like assemblages are present through the iron age into historic time periods. The proximity to modern-day African communities cause some archaeologists to directly interpret modern behaviors as a remnant from prehistoric communities that created Wilton technology.^[20][21] Others have argued that the contact between prehistoric and historic communities have since altered traditional behaviors and cannot be directly related to modern-day communities.^[22] During the Wilton time frame, skeletal and isotopic data supports evidence for exclusive access to resources, warfare, and burials. ^[23][24][15] These types of behaviors become prominent in South Africa during the middle Holocene, suggesting an increase in behaviors associated with territorial behaviors. Evidence for these behaviors is not common before ~8,000 years ago, and though this may be due to preservation and/or survey bias, archaeologists interpret this as a cultural shift.^[15]

Wilton is widely described as a shift from large to small stone technology with an emphasis scrappers and backed tools, though not all sites associated with Wilton contain high numbers of backed tools.^[2][5] This discrepancy offers some evidence that broad categories like Wilton overgeneralize behaviors of people whom, though may have had some cultural activities in common, exhibit diverse tool sets.^[25] Many archaeologists acknowledge that Wilton is not a single culture or identity but, instead, solely reflects general trends over small regions in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Transvaal, and most of South Africa from 8,000-4,000.

Background and History

Wilton technology was first described by John Hewitt after he excavated with the collaboration of C. W. Wilmot a cave on the farm Wilton near Alicedale in the eastern Cape of South Africa.^[2][3] Later sites are found along the coastal margins of South Africa and into the interior of South Africa and into the countries of Zambia and Zimbabwe.^[26][7][17] The Wilton site is adjacent to the Karoo region of South Africa and thus, suggests a diverse environment that could have easily supported forager groups living in this area.^[2] Three dates came from the Wilton rock shelter that ranged from 8,260-2,270. These dates allowed archaeologists to track changes in stone technology and behavior through the Wilton site.^[2] The observed environment and time constraints at this site, among others like Oakhurst and Matjes River, provide archaeologists with insight into a time range in which foragers produced Wilton technology and thus, exhibited similar cultural practices.^[27][16]

At the Wilton site, Hewitt first noted that this site contained remnants from two distinct cultures, distinguishable by the size of the stone tools. The stone preceding Wilton technology appeared much larger at the Wilton site. Based on the large size of the stone tools, Hewitt supposed that this material pertained to a predecessor of Wilton technology, known today as Oakhurst.^[3] The significant component to Wilton sites are decreases in tool size compared with its predecessor and increased amount of stone scraper.^[1][2] Furthermore, the stone material at the Wilton rock shelter is predominantly Chalcedony.^[2] This assemblage was dominated with stone scrapers and few backed tools. Scrapers were likely used for processing animal hides.^[28][29] Backed tools were created by blunting one margin of the stone tool at a near-90 degree angle.^[30] These backed tools were likely hafted to projectiles and served as barbs.^[31] Archaeologists have used the the assemblage at the Wilton rock shelter to define other Wilton-like assemblages throughout South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.^[2][8][17]

In 1929, Goodwin and Van Riet Lowe initially used Wilton as a term to describe Microlith archaeological assemblages that contained small stone scrapers, and backed tools.^[18] During this early period of excavating, Goodwin and Van Riet Lowe broke up Wilton technology into two variations defined by the interior and coastal geography of South Africa. The technological industry they associate with interior sites was termed Smithfield, leaving Wilton to define coastal foragers.^[18][9] Forager communities were using Smithfield technology was thought to be contemporaneous with Wilton, but contained much larger stone technologies. During the mid-1900s, archaeologists began recovering more Wilton-like objects from other locations in South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Zambia.^[32][17][7] The stone technology in each of these regions reflects similar characteristics of Wilton technology but each contained slight variations in the technology, likely reflecting local shifts to the environment. For instance, the site of Gwisho had predominantly more backed tools than scrapers, contradicting what was originally found at the Wilton rock shelter.^[2][19] Backed tools soon became a significant component of Wilton assemblages.^[13] Building on the increased frequency of Wilton sites, Deacon used radiocarbon dates and backed tool frequencies to show that Smithfield could not be contemporaneous with Wilton and thus, must be a preceding technological industry, now termed Oakhurst.^[33]

Today, Wilton technology covers much of the same geographical scale as the preceding industry, Oakhurst. Wilton was originally associated with the archaeological assemblage from Wilton farm, which included a high number of scrapers, though archaeological assemblages elsewhere showed additional evidence for backed technology. So, today, Wilton technology is associated with an increase in formal tools likes scrapers and backed pieces as well as a significant reduction in size.^[5][2] Wilton technology represents an increase in homogeneity across much of South Africa,^[34] including some sites in Zambia and Zimbabwe.^{[17][12][7][8]} This pattern of standard, Wilton, tool kits breaks down after 4,000 years, entering into the final late stone age.^[5] Evidence for the introduction of ceramics, pastoralism, and iron-working post-dating 4,000 years ago has created a mosaic of final late stone age technological industries in Southern Africa.^[35] This mosaic of industries makes it difficult to generalize cultural technology under a single framework like Wilton and so, the term Wilton is now limited from 8,000-4,000 years.

Today, the occurrence of Wilton-like assemblages are explained through changes in populations and increased temperatures during the middle of the Holocene (POP SIZE AND TEMP DON'T EXPLAIN ANYTHING, THEY ARE VARIABLES. YOU NEED TO SPECIFY THE THEORY THAT EXPLAINS WHY THESE VARIABLES SHOULD CAUSE THE CHANGES WE SEE IN THE WILTON RECORD) (REFERENCES). Though more work is required to address the environmental context that Zambia and Zimbabwe Wilton technologies developed under, today, archaeologists equate Wilton assemblages with coastal foraging groups in South Africa that extend slightly into the interior belt fold mountain range (NOT SURE THIS PAPER SAYS WHAT YOU ARE CITING IT FOR. GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION MUCH WIDER THAN COASTS-WHAT ABOUT ROSE COTTAGE CAVE? SEHONGHONG? CAVE JAMES? DIAMOND SHELTER? DIKBOSCH? GRASSRIDGE).^[34] Where Wilton assemblages used to be classified with Iron age sites, Wilton is now restricted from 8,000-4,000 years ago.^[5][4] Sites that date beyond 4,000 years share similar forms of technology with Wilton but are distinguished by their increased diversity of tool types.^[34] Although, some argue that terms like Wilton should not define a suite of cultural practices, in fear of overgeneralizing, this term is still used to interpret specific cultural components and diversity of behaviors in archaeological sites today (SHEA IS NOT THE RIGHT REFERENCE HERE. ALSO, STATEMENT SEEMS VERY OUT OF PLACE HERE. I THINK YOU NEED A NEW SECTION ON: DOES WILTIN REPRESENT A CULTURAL GROUP? OR SOMETHING LIKE THAT).^[25]

Geographic Locations (currently under development)

Example title

1200km
820miles

Zoovoorbij

Uniondale

Tshisiku Shelter

Tshangula Cave

Tloutle

Springbokoog

Siphiso

Shongweni South

Sehonghong

Rose Cottage Cave

Rooikrans

Pienaars Pan 1

Oakhurst

Numas Schlucht Cave

Nkupe Shelter

Nelson Bay Cave

Namtib

Mzinyashana Shelter

Mgede Shelter

Melkhoutboom

Meerlust 1

Matjies River

Maqonqo

Leliehoek

Kangkara Cave

Kabeljous River Shelter

Jubilee Shelter

Jakkalsberg N

Jagt Pan 1

Havens Cave

Grassridge

Good Hope Shelter

Gehle Shelter

Elands Bay Cave

Dikbosch 1

Diamond Shelter

Colwinton

Cave James

Byneskranskop 1

Buffelskloof

Boomplaas

Blydefontein

Blombosfontein

Amadzimba

Wilton

  

Wilton archaeological site locations

1. Wilton Larger Rockshelter
   

[Here I will add a map of geographic locations and site names/dates]

[In this section, I plan to produce a map using wikimedia maps, but this will take some time to learn the coding and to import a GeoJSON file and the information I want to include with the site locations of Wilton sites. I will derive the locations, names, and time range for each site using the South African Radiocarbon Database.] (YOU COULD ALSO JUST MAKE ONE IN GOOGLE EARTH OR ARC AND UPLOAD IT, NO NEED TO OVER COMPLICATE THINGS. HERE'S A LINK TO SITE LOCATIONS TO GET YOU STARTED: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1HUAPlBpETzDeHHEdCz2n2jn1gGaw3juX/view?usp=sharing)

Technology

Archaeologists associate Wilton assemblages with an assortment of different types of stone and non-stone technology. Stone materials are one of the longest-lasting artifacts and, as such, allow archaeologists to interpret the behaviors of past peoples. In rare instances, it is possible for archaeologists to recover non-stone technology, hereafter referred to as biological material. Biological materials like wooden shafts of spears or digging sticks give insight into the broader cultural pattern of past foraging communities that is usually only represented via stone materials. For the Wilton archaeological record, archaeologists have access to a wide variety of stone tools and cases where biological tools were recovered, allowing Wilton to be defined by not only stone but also non-stone technology.

Stone technology

Microlith segment that shows the typical geometric shape and the effect of backing on one margin.

Image of a scraper. In some contexts, this artifact is referred to as a thumbnail scraper.

Initially derived from the Wilton rock shelter in South Africa, Janette Deacon classified the Wilton assemblages into four phases that mark the beginning of Wilton (stage 0), a growth phase (stage 1), a mature phase (stage 2), and a decline phase (stage 3).^[2] Janette Deacon recognizes a pre-ancestral stone industry at Wilton rock shelter dating to 10,000 years ago by the presence of large stone scrapers made from Quartzite materials. Furthermore, these stone materials are associated with large fauna, suggesting pre-ancestral peoples foraged large animals. These large stone tools are attributable to what Goodwin and Lowe would term Smithfield, a contemporaneous but distinct culture from Wilton.^[18] At 8,000 years ago, scrapers at the Wilton site become much smaller, and very few tool types are represented at this time. Deacon claims that this forms the basis for a growth phase (stage 1) of Wilton, which turns towards a mature phase (stage 2) dating to around 4,800 years ago. Stage 2 is represented by the smallest variation in scraper size and shape as well as a faunal assemblage dominated by small animals, distinguishing the Wilton from its predecessor. Additionally, this period is correlated with an increase in backed tool manufacture at Wilton. Though Deacon does not bring attention to this increase, backed tools become a prevalent factor in Wilton assemblages along coastal sites. Then, around 2,270 years ago, the stone scrapers at Wilton become more variable, and formal tools decrease, suggesting a decline phase (stage 3). Stage 3 at the Wilton site is also correlated with the occurrence of pottery. Deacon suggests that "The correlation between the appearance of pottery and the 'death' of the Wilton cultural system is perhaps significant."^[2] These observations at Wilton rock shelter formed the basis for how Wilton assemblages are colloquially recognized, but soon, archaeologists realized that Wilton assemblages do vary in technology depending on where they are located.

Where Goodwin and Lowe originally define Smithfield as the interior cultural equivalent to Wilton, Deacon showed that Wilton is constrained to the middle-Holocene (~8,000-4,000 years ago) and excludes assemblages identified as Smithfield.^[33][18] Specifically, the main difference between Smithfield and Wilton is a decrease in tool size and an increase in formal tools. Moreover, Deacon showed that there is a correlation between Wilton assemblages and an increasing quantity of formal tools like small segments, backed tools, and scrapers.^[2] These stone implements are similar to previous stone technologies that show up in several archaeological assemblages dating back to the Howiesons Poort (~70,000 years ago) but do not reflect the same cultural behaviors. Stone segments are often geometric in shape forming crescents that are then backed. The process of backing involves repeated percussion against one edge of a stone tool at a nearly 90-degree angle.^[36] Archaeologists associate these backed tools and segments as inserts that would have been hafted to form spear-like weapons.^[37][38]

In Zambia, the stone technology from Luano Spring contains similar components to South African Wilton assemblages.^[39] Zambian Wilton technology is defined from the Mumbwa site, which shares similar technologies to South African Wilton and dates to the same later stone age periods (8,000-4,000 years ago).^[40] Stone technology from Luano Spring consists of mostly quartz materials and, like South Africa, reflects a shift towards decreased size and emphasis on formal tools. However, this site is unique because of the frequency of Denticulate tools.^[39] The prominence of these types of tools likely reflects regional adaptations to different environments and access to raw materials like quartz. Due to this variation, some have termed these assemblages in Zambia as Nachikufan.^[41] Others have further noted that not all Nachikufan assemblages in Zambia reflect a similar Wilton-like appearance and thus, question their role in the later stone age industries.^[42] The distinction between Wilton and Nachikufan is defined by the absence of large scrapers, which had defined the previous Oakhurst technologies.^[43]

Similar sites in Zambia like that of Gwisho contained both inorganic (stone) and organic tools.^[8] Stone technology at Gwisho was similarly made on quartz raw materials.^[43] The stone flakes from Gwisho A were irregular and accompanied by Wilton-like formal tools such as small scrapers and backed tools, but this site also contained denticulate tools, though not as many as was recovered from Luano Spring.^[43] A comparison to the Mumbwa site in Zambia shows local variation in the frequency of heavy stone tools (defined as tools used for woodworking ) and Burins.^[40][43] However, like South Africa, the similarity in decreased stone technology, emphasis on small scrapers, and backed tools suggests Wilton technology in Zambia appears homogenous across space during the later stone age.

Non-stone technology

Archaeological sites in Zimbabwe and Zambia provide evidence of worked bone and wooden implements, providing an insight into the organic tools associated with Wilton technology.^[19][8] Specifically, the site of Pomongwe in Zimbabwe as well as Gwisho and Amadzimba cave in Zambia provide an assortment of bone and wooden technologies. Pomongwe cave in Zimbabwe has preserved several wooden and bone tools dating around 2,000 years ago and assigned as a Wilton assemblage.^[17] Two large and four small wooden projectile points and an element shaped like a hook were recovered from Pomongwe in association with notched bone shards, which are likely the result of scraping motions. Cook suggests that the wooden tools may have been used as digging sticks to acquire food resources, whereas the hook-shaped element may have been used as an animal trap.^[17] There was one cylindrical bone element that was hollowed out and may have been used as a flute or smoking pipe. Together, these biological tools allow archaeologists to infer the hunting and social behaviors of foragers associated with Wilton technologies. Furthermore, Cook contrasts the similarity of these biological tools with those found in South Africa and Zambia, arguing that Wilton technologies are similarly designed across southern Africa.

Gwisho hot springs in Zambia are broken up into three discrete sites, Gwisho A, B, and C. The Gwisho sites in Zambia contain several crushed bone and elephant ivory that was likely used for bone marrow as well as evidence for use-wear, suggesting these objects fall under the category of technology.^[43] Examples of bone tools found at Gwisho include points, awls, and needles. These types of tools were also encountered at the Amadzimba Cave in Southern Rhodesia,^[44][17] though Fagan and Van Noten argue that the bone technology at Gwisho is not as advanced as those recovered from Southern Rhodesia.^[43] Other sites in Zambia, such as Mumbwa, have not yielded any evidence for bone tools.^[43][40] This variation could be the result of clear differences in technologies that foragers used at these sites, or taphonomic biases. That is, since biological materials rarely survive in the archaeological record, sites that lack evidence of biological tools may simply reflect instances with poor preservation, instead of technological changes.

Wooden fragments found at Gwisho are another form of technological strategy that implies the importance of wood-as-tools at these sites.^[8][43] Many wooden tools at Gwisho Springs are fragmented and unidentifiable, but each one shows signs of chopping, smoothing, and cutting, implying the intentional working of these wooden implements.^[43] Fagan and Von Noten identify several types of wooden tools at the Gwisho sites that include Pointed implements, digging sticks, club-shaped objects, and an array of smoothed fragments. They interpret the implements as evidence for pestles, knives, arrow shafts, and armaments.^[43] Similar types of wooden fragments were recovered from the Pomongwe site in Zimbabwe.^[17] Since these wooden tools are associated with Wilton-like stone technology, this relationship provides evidence of the importance that biological tools played in communities that made Wilton-like stone tools. Biological tools do not preserve in every archaeological context and thus, provide one explanation for why other sites associated with Wilton do not exhibit evidence of biological tools.

Cultural Behaviors

Archaeologists like Goodwin and Lowe first used the term Wilton to describe a distinct stone tool assemblage with the implication that these assemblages were associated with unique cultural behaviors of foraging communities.^[18] Though some archaeologists show that Wilton sites dating between 8,000 and 4,000 years ago share similar stone and non-stone technology, contrasts between sites like Gwisho spring, Pomongwe, Mumbwa, Wilton rock shelter, and Rose Cottage Cave show variability in the tools that foragers used during the middle Holocene.^{[43][17][32][40][8][3]} The variability at each of these sites often reflects changes in frequency and types of tools present.^[2] These changes might be a result of different environmental adaptations because, though the types of tools change from site to site, the Wilton-like assemblages still reflect homogeneous shifts from large to small tools and thus, may suggest a change in behavioral adaptation. Three common behavioral interpretations archaeologists associate with Wilton assemblages are dietary habits, material exchange and production (i.e., eggshell beads), and population movement.

Diet

Archaeologists use a variety of methods to understand the past diets of forager communities including the presence of faunal remains and Isotope data. Diets of many Wilton sites have been interpreted through the presence of faunal material, while few sites along the Southern coast of South Africa interpret diets through isotopic data. Wilton sites located in the cape of South Africa are generally associated with the collection of small animals, differentiating the preceding phase in which Oakhurst assemblages are correlated with large animals.^[2][45][46] Plant use also appeared to increase during Wilton occupations until 2,000 years ago.^[33][47]

These trends of plant and animal use are also reflected in the South African interior at sites like Rose Cottage Cave. At this inland site, an analysis of the stone tools shows that plant processing was a common task that foragers practiced. Preserved starch grains suggest that people at Rose Cottage Cave likely harvested underground plants including bulbs and tubers.^[32] Specific animals that were consumed at this site include antelope, vlei rat, warthog, and springbok among many more species. These animals inform archaeologists that the environment at this inland site was cool and moist, but it slowly became hotter and more arid into the mid-Holocene (SEPARATE ENVIRONMENTAL AND NON-ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS INTO TWO SEPARATE SECTIONS).^[32]

An antelope (left) and, for a size comparison, deer (right) browsing in Africa.

Northern Wilton assemblages also contain evidence for increased hunting of small game and heavy plant processing. In the Lunsemfwa basin, along the Lunsemfwa River in Zambia, the most dominant species present are bovids.^[13] Among the list of bovids represented here, past peoples consumed zebra, tortoise, aardvark, and small browsing antelope. In this region of Zambia, these fauna represent a similar environment that exists in Zambia today.^[13] Musonda and Gutin similarly show that the presence of fauna at the Mufulwe rock shelter in Zambia suggests periods of increased aridity that would have forced foraging communities to seasonally migrate between different sites on the landscape.^[12] This contrasts South African interior sites where the environment was less stable, yet both sites show similar animal and plant use patterns among the inhabitants.^[48]

Entrance to Nelson Bay Cave showing the vicinity to the ocean.

Even along the southern coast of South Africa, despite the vicinity to the ocean, the faunal assemblages reflect terrestrial hunting strategies but with a slight increase in marine resources. Sites like Nelson Bay Cave show continued dependence on small game animals from 9,000-5,000 years ago.^[49] However, after 5,000 years ago diets at Nelson Bay Cave and other coastal sites reflects an increased dependence on marine resources. At Nelson bay cave 3,300 years ago, marine resources like fish and seals became a staple food source for these people.^[24] The site of Matjes River, which lies 14km along the shore from Nelson Bay Cave shows a similar trend away from terrestrial foods but, instead of foraging marine resources, isotopic and archaeological data suggest the inhabitants of Matjes River had a mixed diet. This mixed diet included terrestrial bovids with an increased emphasis on the collection marine of foods like shellfish.^[24] Contrasting these two examples, skeletal remains from the inland site of Witcher's Cave show an exclusive terrestrial diet.^[24] So, it is clear that, where other Wilton sites in South Africa and Zambia show a continued dependence on small bovids and plant processing through the middle Holocene, forager communities in the southernmost portion of South Africa reflect a variety of behaviors that diverge from the classic Wilton generalization after 4,000 years ago.

Material exchange

Image of the coastal region (Cape Town, South Africa) with a fynbos dominated environment.

Since archaeologists recognize Wilton as a shared system of cultural behaviors, there is an implied relationship Wilton communities have with one another that span from southernmost South Africa to Zambia. However, archaeological evidence suggest inter-regional and intra-regional variation. For instance, the way in which past peoples made arrowheads and backed stone tools, suggests different methods of production and thus, limited communication between foraging communities associated with Wilton technology.^[32] Inter-regional variability can be seen between the Wilton rock shelter and sites like Zambia. At Wilton, there are few backed tools, something that, today, defines Wilton assemblages but in contrast, sites in Zambia exhibit a high number of backed tools.^[2] However, there is much more variety in the types of non-tool stone material remains including the use of shell beads and ochre. Shell beads are interpreted as materials that can be traded and represent group identities on the landscape.^[50] On the other hand, ocher has functional uses such as ultraviolet protection and mastic for binding stone tools to spear-like weaponry, however, many scholars have also argued that ochre was used to symbolize group identities like shell beads.^[51][52] Ochre was also recovered from burials that date to Wilton period, suggesting ceremonial importance for ochre.^[53] Though stone technology may have been exchanged on the southern African landscape, the presence of non-tool stone materials during the mid-Holocene does suggest a diverse array of behaviors.

Image of Drakensberg Mountains, South Africa.

Among inter-regional variations in technology, there exist intra-regional burial practices also vary widely throughout with coastal communities having the most prominent and diverse burial styles.^[54] Hall and Binneman show increased emphasis in burial practices and material production from two South African sites, Klasies River Caves and Welgeluk Shelter. These authors argue that differences in burial practices and increase material production like shell beads reflect a stressed environment and more emphasis on group identity. These authors posit that such environments may drive increased social exchange between forager communities and further suggest this may indicate semi-permanent settlements.^[54] However, differences in shell materials and non-stone technology between Nelson Bay Cave and Matjes River, in South Africa, suggest limited material exchange.^[55][24] In this latter case, archaeologists interpret, not an increase in exchange networks, but evidence for exclusive behaviors associated with territorial defense.^[56]

Ostrich eggshell beads showing size differences. Scale bar = 5 mm; (a) Nelson Bay Cave, South Africa; (b) Wonderwerk Cave, South Africa; (c) Magubike Rockshelter, Tanzania; (d) Daumboy 3 Rockshelter, Tanzania

To exemplify regional differences in Wilton communities, more recent studies of the Drakensberg montane region show large networks of forager communities. Stewart and colleagues use Isotopes of strontium to show that ostrich eggshells traveled hundreds of kilometers into this region during the period 8,000 years ago.^[57] This pattern contrasts that seen along the coastal regions of South Africa, suggesting regional differences in mobility and potential material exchange. For 50,000 years, forager communities in Africa have used ostrich eggshell beads.^[58] Archaeologists believe that the increase in bead production links prehistoric cultures to an increased need to symbolize group identities.^[50][59] The extensive movement of shells inland and the symbolic potential of these objects suggests highly mobile groups of people during the first period of time that we see Wilton-like technology (8,000 years ago). These networks once used to span from East to South Africa but appear to be disconnected after the Last Glacial Maximum. For instance, the stylistic design of eggshell beads remained similar between southern and eastern Africa until 33,000 years ago, forming an inter-regional network of foraging communities. By 19,000 years ago, the design of these beads varied, and by the middle Holocene, eastern and southern African communities appeared separated from one another.^[60] The spatial extent of social exchange was likely limited by prehistoric networks. The isolation of southern Africa may reflect the reason why Wilton-like technologies only extend as far north as Zimbabwe.^[17]

Lastly, the use of Ochre during this period has been interpreted as both, a symbolic and functional material.^[61][62] Ochre is a mineral pigment that past foraging communities have used since the Middle Stone Age for burials, symbolism, and hafting stone tools.^[52][63] During the Holocene, there is an increased use of ochre with evidence that ochre was heavily used in burials^[64][65] and hafting stone technology.^[66] Given that Wilton technology is associated with an increase in backed tools, it is likely that ochre was used for hafting these implements to create weapons. However, sites in southern Namaqualand, South Africa, exhibit an absence of preserved ochre on the backed tools in Holocene assemblages.^[67] This absence may suggest that ochre was used for other functional purposes during the Holocene and not exclusively for hafting stone tools. Additional uses of ochre are as an insect repellent.^[68] By contrast, the symbolic use of ochre is related to signaling group identity and artistic expressions in the form of rock art.^[69] Most middle Holocene assemblages spanning from the coastal regions to inland montane environments do contain evidence that ochre was heavily used.^[70][65] However, the vast majority of archaeological assemblages in South Africa do not provide adequate context to directly observe the use of ochre as symbolic material. Archaeologists use ethnographic data to interpret how prehistoric populations may have used ochre and to infer the magnitude of its cultural significance.^[71]

Demographics

One implication of this similarity in technology is related to the movement of peoples through southern Africa and hence, the interaction of different forager populations. Goodwin and Lowe initially considered Wilton to be a culture that migrated into South Africa from a more northern region, but Deacon showed that Wilton was likely an adopted feature of already existing technologies and was not an effect of a pioneering culture. Building on this hypothesis, Judith Sealy posits that Wilton technology was developed under low populations that occurred due to increased aridity throughout much of South Africa during the middle Holocene.^[15]

Current hypotheses suggest that the size of human populations is directly linked to changes in climate and hence, result in technological changes.^[15] Environmental data shows favorable climate and increased site density from 12,000-8,000 years ago, corresponding to Oakhurst technology, which consists of large, informal tools.^[5] Favorable climate fosters highly productive ecosystems and thus, adequate amount of resources to support large group sizes. Climate and demographics during this time implies large forager populations.^[72][73] However, during the middle Holocene, temperatures increased, forming arid regions that became unsuitable for forager populations in South Africa.^[74][75] Archaeological sites in South Africa show a discontinuous spatial distribution of Wilton technology and thus, suggests sparse populations.^[15] The use and emphasis on small, formal, stools from 8,000-4,000 years ago can be explained as a strategy for coping with poor environmental conditions.^[76][77] Yet, the uniform transition from large to small tools may suggest that there were extended networks between foraging communities in South Africa that extended north into portions of Zambia and Zimbabwe.^[15] This evidence provides support that ameliorated climate and sparse, but well-connected, foraging populations may be a component to the development of Wilton technology.

Significance of Wilton Culture to Modern African Communities

Khoisan, sometimes just referred to as San, is the name for the Indigenous communities of South Africa and to many archaeologists, represents direct cultural descendants from later Stone Age foragers.^[78][21] At an early account for the site of Mumbwa in Zambia, Protsch argued that Khoisan peoples emerged in central Africa around 20,000 years ago.^[79] Other accounts by d'Errico and colleagues use evidence from Border Cave to suggest a much earlier emergence of Khoisan communities dating to 40,000 years ago.^[78] These case studies argue that the stone and non-stone tools of early foraging communities in central and southern Africa reflect similar tools used by Khoisan today, but other archaeologists argue on the basis of scientific inference that the similarity of technology does not imply cultural continuity over 40,000 years.^[22] These contrasting views reflect two main components of the Kalahari debate in which the question of cultural continuity between late Stone Age peoples and modern Indigenous communities comes under scrutiny. On one end, the cultural identities of African communities represent a direct link to prehistoric populations and can help to describe prehistoric behaviors. On the other end of this debate, cultural contact and transformation have been ongoing for thousands of years and so, modern communities do not reflect the exact cultural behaviors or identities of prehistoric populations.

During the Holocene, the question becomes whether Wilton technology reflects the foundation for modern Indigenous communities in South Africa today. Wilton is the last colloquially recognized technological industry before the final late Stone Age communities post-dating 4,000 years.^[5] After 4,000 years ago, the technologies that foragers use become less standardized and more variable across Southern Africa.^[15] Increased variability in the types of tools people made may reflect human choices to specialize to specific environments and may signal a disconnect from exchange networks that some posit existed from 8,000-4,000 years.^[15] At 2,000 years ago, pastoral communities entered South Africa from northern regions and began to interact with foraging communities.^[80][81] Contact between foraging and pastoral communities likely impacted the types of tools present and cultural behaviors. Some scholars show that not all foraging communities conformed to pastoral lifeways, but, instead, adapted to the presence of pastoralists by specializing in tools designed for a new economy.^[82] A change in economy after 2,000 years may not have changed cultural practices of foragers during this time, but the introduction of this economy did change the kinds of stone technology.^[82] Therefore, this brings up an issue with connecting present and past cultural identities based solely on technology.

During European contact, other scholars posit that this interaction created a kind of Creolization.^[83] Creolization refers to the expression of new cultural traits as an effect of the contact between two unique cultures. Evidence for creolization in the historic past questions if cultural identities remained intact up until the present day. If cultural identities are intact, then archaeologists can use modern Indigenous communities to interpret Holocene behaviors, but the creolization may suggest a shift in cultural behaviors. Furthermore, since tools may be driven by changes in economy and not necessarily cultural behaviors, this makes it difficult to argue that cultural identities are linked to the stone tools past foragers used. This brings us back to the concerns that stone industries like Wilton overgeneralize cultural behaviors and may not accurately reflect groups identities across southern Africa.

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