Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages

Programming languages can be grouped by the number and types of paradigms supported.

A concise reference for the programming paradigms listed in this article.

Concurrent programming – have language constructs for concurrency, these may involve multi-threading, support for distributed computing, message passing, shared resources (including shared memory), or futures
- Actor programming – concurrent computation with actors that make local decisions in response to the environment (capable of selfish or competitive behaviour)
Constraint programming – relations between variables are expressed as constraints (or constraint networks), directing allowable solutions (uses constraint satisfaction or simplex algorithm)
Dataflow programming – forced recalculation of formulas when data values change (e.g. spreadsheets)
Declarative programming – describes what computation should perform, without specifying detailed state changes c.f. imperative programming (functional and logic programming are major subgroups of declarative programming)
Distributed programming – have support for multiple autonomous computers that communicate via computer networks
Functional programming – uses evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data
Generic programming – uses algorithms written in terms of to-be-specified-later types that are then instantiated as needed for specific types provided as parameters
Imperative programming – explicit statements that change a program state
Logic programming – uses explicit mathematical logic for programming
Metaprogramming – writing programs that write or manipulate other programs (or themselves) as their data, or that do part of the work at compile time that would otherwise be done at runtime
- Template metaprogramming – metaprogramming methods in which a compiler uses templates to generate temporary source code, which is merged by the compiler with the rest of the source code and then compiled
- Reflective programming – metaprogramming methods in which a program modifies or extends itself
Object-oriented programming – uses data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions (objects) to design programs
- Class-based – object-oriented programming in which inheritance is achieved by defining classes of objects, versus the objects themselves
- Prototype-based – object-oriented programming that avoids classes and implements inheritance via cloning of instances
Pipeline programming – a simple syntax change to add syntax to nest function calls to language originally designed with none
Rule-based programming – a network of rules of thumb that comprise a knowledge base and can be used for expert systems and problem deduction & resolution
Visual programming – manipulating program elements graphically rather than by specifying them textually (e.g. Simulink); also termed diagrammatic programming^[1]

More information Language, Paradigm count ...

List of multi-paradigm programming languages
Language	Paradigm count	Concurrent	Constraints	Dataflow	Declarative	Distributed	Functional	Metaprogramming	Generic	Imperative	Logic	Reflection	Object-oriented	Pipelines	Visual	Rule-based	Other
Ada^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6]	5	Yes^{[a 1]}	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
ALF	2	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—
AmigaE ^{[citation needed]}	2	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
APL	3	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—	Array (multi-dimensional)
BETA ^{[citation needed]}	3	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
C++	7 (15)	Yes^[7]^[8]^[9]	Library^[10]	Library^[11]^[12]	Library^[13]^[14]	Library^[15]^[16]	Yes	Yes^[17]	Yes^{[a 3]}	Yes	Library^[18]^[19]	Library^[20]	Yes^{[a 2]}	Yes^[21]	—	Library^[22]	Array (multi-dimensional; using STL)
C#	6 (7)	Yes	—	Library^{[a 4]}	—	—	Yes^{[a 5]}	—	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	Reactive^{[a 6]}
ChucK ^{[citation needed]}	3	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Claire	2	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Clojure	5	Yes^[23]^[24]	—	—	Yes	—	Yes^[25]	Yes^[26]	—	—	Library^[27]	—	—	Yes^[28]	Editor^[29]	—	Multiple dispatch,^[30] Agents^[31]
Common Lisp	7 (14)	Library^[32]	Library^[33]	Library^[34]	Yes^[35]	Library^[36]	Yes	Yes	Yes^[37]	Yes	Library^[38]	Yes	Yes^{[a 7]}^{[a 2]}^[39]	Library^[40]	Library^[41]	Library^[42]	Multiple dispatch, meta-OOP system,^[43] Language is extensible via metaprogramming.
Curl	5	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	Yes^{[a 3]}	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Curry	4	Yes	Yes	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—
D (version 2.0)^[44]^[45]	7	Yes^{[a 8]}	—	—	—	—	Yes	Yes^[46]^{[a 3]}	Yes^{[a 3]}	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Delphi	3	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes^{[a 3]}	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Dylan ^{[citation needed]}	3	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
E	3	Yes	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
ECMAScript^[47]^[48] (ActionScript, E4X, JavaScript, JScript)	4 (5)	Partial^{[a 9]}^{[a 10]}	—	—	Library^[49]^[50]	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 11]}	Library^[51]^[52]	Editor^[53]	—	Reactive,^{[a 12]}^[54] event driven^{[a 13]}^{[a 14]}
Erlang	3	Yes	—	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—
Elixir	4	Yes	—	—	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—
Elm	6	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	—	Yes (pure)^{[a 15]}	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Reactive
F#	7 (8)	Yes^{[a 8]}	—	Library^{[a 4]}	Yes	—	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	Reactive^{[a 6]}
Fortran	4 (5)	Yes	—	—	—	—	Yes^{[a 15]}	—	Yes^{[a 16]}	—	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	Array (multi-dimensional)
Go	4	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	Yes	—	Yes	—	—	—
Haskell	8 (15)	Yes	Library^[55]	Library^[56]	Yes	Library^[57]	Yes (lazy) (pure)^{[a 15]}	Yes^[58]	Yes	Yes	Library^[59]	—	Partial^{[a 17]}	Yes	Yes	Library^[60]	Literate, reactive, dependent types (partial)
Io	4	Yes^{[a 8]}	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 11]}	—	—	—	—
J ^{[citation needed]}	3	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Java	6	Yes	Library^[61]	Library^[62]	—	—	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Julia	9 (17)	Yes	Library^[63]	Library^[64]^[65]	Library^[66]	Yes	Yes (eager)	Yes	Yes	Yes	Library^[67]	Yes	Yes^{[a 18]}	Yes	—	Library^[68]^[69]	Multiple dispatch, Array (multi-dimensional); optionally lazy^[70] and reactive (with libraries)
Kotlin	8	Yes	—	—	—	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	—	—
LabVIEW	4	Yes	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	Yes	—	—
Lava	2	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	Yes	—	—
LispWorks (version 6.0 with support for symmetric multi-processing, rules, logic (Prolog), CORBA)	9	Yes	—	—	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	Yes	—
Lua ^{[citation needed]}	3	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 11]}	—	—	—	—
MATLAB	6 (10)	Toolbox^[71]	Toolbox^[72]	Yes^[73]	—	Toolbox^[74]	—	Yes^[75]	Yes^[76]	—	—	Yes^[77]	Yes^[78]	—	Yes^[79]	—	Array (multi-dimensional)
Nemerle	7	Yes	—	—	—	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Object Pascal	4	Yes	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
OCaml	4	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Oz	11	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	—	Yes	Yes	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	Yes	—	Yes	—
Perl ^{[citation needed]}	8 (9)	Yes^[80]	—	Yes^[81]	—	—	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	Yes^{[a 2]}	Yes	—	—	—
PHP^[82]^[83]^[84]	4	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Poplog	3	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—
Prograph	3	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	Yes	—	—
Python	5 (10)	Library^[85]^[86]	Library^[87]	—	—	Library^[88]	Yes	Yes^[89]^[90]	Yes^[91]^[92]	Yes	Library^[93]	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	Editor^[94]	—	Structured
R	4 (6)	Library^[95]	—	—	—	Library^[96]	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	Yes^[97]	—	—	Array (multi-dimensional)
Racket	10	Yes^[98]	Yes^[99]	Yes^[100]	—	Yes^[101]	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	—	—	Lazy^[102]
Raku	10	Yes^[103]	Library^[104]	Yes^[105]	—	Library^[106]	Yes	Yes^[107]	Yes^[108]	Yes	—	Yes^[109]	Yes^[110]	Yes	—	—	Multiple dispatch, lazy lists, reactive.
ROOP	3	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	Yes	—	—	—	—	Yes	—
Ruby	5	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Rust (version 1.0.0-alpha)	6	Yes^{[a 8]}	—	—	—	—	Yes	Yes^[111]^[112]	Yes^[113]	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	Linear, affline, and ownership types
Sather ^{[citation needed]}	2	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Scala^[114]^[115]	9	Yes^{[a 8]}	—	Yes^{[a 19]}	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
Simula ^{[citation needed]}	2	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	—
SISAL	3	Yes	—	Yes	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	—
Spreadsheets	2	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	—
Swift	7	Yes	—	—	—	—	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	Block-structured
Tcl with Snit extension ^{[citation needed]}	3	—	—	—	—	—	Yes^[116]	—	—	Yes	—	—	Yes^{[a 11]}^[117]	—	—	—	—
Visual Basic .NET	6 (7)	Yes	—	Library^{[a 4]}	—	—	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	—	—	—	Reactive^{[a 6]}
Windows PowerShell	6	—	—	—	—	—	Yes	—	Yes	Yes	—	Yes	Yes^{[a 2]}	Yes	—	—	—
Wolfram Language & Mathematica	13^[118] (14)	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes^[119]	—	Yes	Knowledge Based

Close

[a 1]
rendezvous and monitor-like based
[a 2]
class-based
[a 3]
template metaprogramming
[a 4]
using TPL Dataflow
[a 5]
only lambda support (lazy functional programming)
[a 6]
using Reactive Extensions (Rx)
[a 7]
multiple dispatch, method combinations
[a 8]
actor programming
[a 9]
promises, native extensions
[A 10]
using Node.js' cluster module or child_process.fork method, web workers in the browser, etc.
[A 11]
Prototype-based
[A 12]
using Reactive Extensions (RxJS)
[A 13]
in Node.js via their events module
[A 14]
in browsers via their native EventTarget API
[A 15]
purely functional
[A 16]
parameterized classes
[A 17]
immutable
[A 18]
multiple dispatch, not traditional single
[A 19]
Akka Archived 2013-01-19 at the Wayback Machine

[1]
Bragg, S.D.; Driskill, C.G. (20–22 September 1994). "Diagrammatic-graphical programming languages and DoD-STD-2167A". Proceedings of AUTOTESTCON '94 (IEEEXplore). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). pp. 211–220. doi:10.1109/AUTEST.1994.381508. ISBN 978-0-7803-1910-3. S2CID 62509261.
[2]
Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 9: Tasks and Synchronization
[3]
Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3 Annex E: Distributed Systems
[4]
Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 12: Generic Units
[5]
Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 6: Subprograms
[6]
Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, 3.9 Tagged Types and Type Extensions
[7]
Thread support
[8]
Atomics support
[9]
Memory model
[10]
Gecode
[11]
SystemC
[12]
Boost.Iostreams
[13]
Boolinq
[14]
"AraRat" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-08-19. Retrieved 2019-09-15.
[15]
OpenMPI
[16]
Boost.MPI
[17]
Boost.MPL
[18]
LC++
[19]
Castor Archived 2013-01-25 at the Wayback Machine
[20]
Reflect Library
[21]
N3534
[22]
Boost.Spirit
[23]
Clojure - Concurrent Programming
[24]
Clojure - core.async
[25]
Clojure - Functional Programming
[26]
Clojure - Macros
[27]
Clojure - core.logic
[28]
Clojure - Threading Macros Guide
[29]
"Light Table". 2019-04-08.
[30]
Multimethods and Hierarchies
[31]
Agents and Asynchronous Actions
[32]
"concurrency". CLiki.
[33]
constraint programming inside CL through extensions
[34]
dataflow extension
[35]
by creating DSLs using the built-in metaprogramming; also see note on functional, constraint and logic paradigms, which are part of declarative
[36]
MPI, etc via language extensions
[37]
template metaprogramming using macros (see C++)
[38]
Prolog implemented as a language extension
[39]
Common Lisp Object System see Wikipedia article on CLOS, the Common Lisp Object System.
[40]
implemented by the user via a short macro, example of implementation
[41]
- Visual programming tool based on Common Lisp
[42]
rule-based programming extension
[43]
Archived 2018-04-26 at the Wayback Machine through the Meta Object Protocol
[44]
D Language Feature Table
[45]
Phobos std.algorithm
[46]
D language String Mixins
[47]
The Little JavaScripter demonstrates fundamental commonality with Scheme, a functional language.
[48]
Object-Oriented Programming in JavaScript Archived 2019-02-10 at the Wayback Machine gives an overview of object-oriented programming techniques in JavaScript.
[49]
"React – A JavaScript library for building user interfaces". 2019-04-08.
[50]
"TNG-Hooks". GitHub. 2019-04-08.
[51]
"Lodash documentation". 2019-04-08.
[52]
"mori". 2019-04-08.
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"Light Table". 2019-04-08.
[54]
"TNG-Hooks". GitHub. 2019-04-08.
[55]
"Prolog embedding". Haskell.org.
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"Functional Reactive Programming". HaskellWiki.
[57]
Cloud Haskell
[58]
"Template Haskell". HaskellWiki.
[59]
"Logict: A backtracking logic-programming monad". Haskell.org.
[60]
Kollmansberger, Steve; Erwig, Martin (30 May 2006). "Haskell Rules: Embedding Rule Systems in Haskell" (PDF). Oregon State University.
[61]
https://jcp.org/en/jsr/detail?id=331 JSR 331: Constraint Programming API
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https://github.com/GoogleCloudPlatform/DataflowJavaSDK Google Cloud Platform Dataflow SDK
[63]
"JuliaOpt/JuMP.jl". GitHub. JuliaOpt. 11 February 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2020.
[64]
"GitHub - MikeInnes/DataFlow.jl". GitHub. 2019-01-15.
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"GitHub - JuliaGizmos/Reactive.jl: Reactive programming primitives for Julia". GitHub. 2018-12-28.
[66]
https://github.com/davidanthoff/Query.jl Query almost anything in julia
[67]
https://github.com/lilinjn/LilKanren.jl A collection of Kanren implementations in Julia
[68]
"GitHub - abeschneider/PEGParser.jl: PEG Parser for Julia". GitHub. 2018-12-03.
[69]
"GitHub - gitfoxi/Parsimonious.jl: A PEG parser generator for Julia". GitHub. 2017-08-03.
[70]
Lazy https://github.com/MikeInnes/Lazy.jl
[71]
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[72]
"Write Constraints". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
[73]
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[75]
"Execute MATLAB expression in text - MATLAB eval". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
[76]
"Determine class of object". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
[77]
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[78]
"Object-Oriented Programming". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
[79]
"Simulink". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
[80]
interpreter based threads
[81]
Higher Order Perl
[82]
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The Rosette Guide
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Lazy Racket
[103]
Channels and other mechanisms
[104]
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Feed operator
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[111]
"The Rust macros guide". Rust. Retrieved 19 January 2015.
[112]
"The Rust compiler plugins guide". Rust. Retrieved 19 January 2015.
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[115]
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[116]
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[119]
External Programs, Wolfram Language Documentation.

Jim Coplien, Multiparadigm Design for C++, Addison-Wesley Professional, 1998.

[rend-mon-7] [a 1]
rendezvous and monitor-like based

[class-8] [a 2]
class-based

[temp-meta-20] [a 3]
template metaprogramming

[tpldf-26] [a 4]
using TPL Dataflow

[lambda-27] [a 5]
only lambda support (lazy functional programming)

[rx-28] [a 6]
using Reactive Extensions (Rx)

[multiple-dispatch2-45] [a 7]
multiple dispatch, method combinations

[actor-53] [a 8]
actor programming

[promises-57] [a 9]
promises, native extensions

[nodejs-cluster-58] [A 10]
using Node.js' cluster module or child_process.fork method, web workers in the browser, etc.

[prototype-61] [A 11]
Prototype-based

[rxjs-65] [A 12]
using Reactive Extensions (RxJS)

[node-events-67] [A 13]
in Node.js via their events module

[dom-events-68] [A 14]
in browsers via their native EventTarget API

[pure-func-69] [A 15]
purely functional

[param-class-70] [A 16]
parameterized classes

[immutable-76] [A 17]
immutable

[multiple-dispatch1-85] [A 18]
multiple dispatch, not traditional single

[akka-134] [A 19]
Akka Archived 2013-01-19 at the Wayback Machine

[1] [1]
Bragg, S.D.; Driskill, C.G. (20–22 September 1994). "Diagrammatic-graphical programming languages and DoD-STD-2167A". Proceedings of AUTOTESTCON '94 (IEEEXplore). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). pp. 211–220. doi:10.1109/AUTEST.1994.381508. ISBN 978-0-7803-1910-3. S2CID 62509261.

[2] [2]
Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 9: Tasks and Synchronization

[3] [3]
Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3 Annex E: Distributed Systems

[4] [4]
Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 12: Generic Units

[5] [5]
Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 6: Subprograms

[6] [6]
Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, 3.9 Tagged Types and Type Extensions

[9] [7]
Thread support

[10] [8]
Atomics support

[11] [9]
Memory model

[12] [10]
Gecode

[13] [11]
SystemC

[14] [12]
Boost.Iostreams

[15] [13]
Boolinq

[16] [14]
"AraRat" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-08-19. Retrieved 2019-09-15.

[17] [15]
OpenMPI

[18] [16]
Boost.MPI

[19] [17]
Boost.MPL

[21] [18]
LC++

[22] [19]
Castor Archived 2013-01-25 at the Wayback Machine

[23] [20]
Reflect Library

[24] [21]
N3534

[25] [22]
Boost.Spirit

[29] [23]
Clojure - Concurrent Programming

[30] [24]
Clojure - core.async

[31] [25]
Clojure - Functional Programming

[32] [26]
Clojure - Macros

[33] [27]
Clojure - core.logic

[34] [28]
Clojure - Threading Macros Guide

[35] [29]
"Light Table". 2019-04-08.

[36] [30]
Multimethods and Hierarchies

[37] [31]
Agents and Asynchronous Actions

[38] [32]
"concurrency". CLiki.

[39] [33]
constraint programming inside CL through extensions

[40] [34]
dataflow extension

[41] [35]
by creating DSLs using the built-in metaprogramming; also see note on functional, constraint and logic paradigms, which are part of declarative

[42] [36]
MPI, etc via language extensions

[43] [37]
template metaprogramming using macros (see C++)

[44] [38]
Prolog implemented as a language extension

[46] [39]
Common Lisp Object System see Wikipedia article on CLOS, the Common Lisp Object System.

[47] [40]
implemented by the user via a short macro, example of implementation

[48] [41]
- Visual programming tool based on Common Lisp

[49] [42]
rule-based programming extension

[50] [43]
Archived 2018-04-26 at the Wayback Machine through the Meta Object Protocol

[51] [44]
D Language Feature Table

[52] [45]
Phobos std.algorithm

[54] [46]
D language String Mixins

[55] [47]
The Little JavaScripter demonstrates fundamental commonality with Scheme, a functional language.

[56] [48]
Object-Oriented Programming in JavaScript Archived 2019-02-10 at the Wayback Machine gives an overview of object-oriented programming techniques in JavaScript.

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Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages

Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages

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Paradigm summaries

Language overview

See also

Notes

Citations

References