Heavenly Stems

The ten Heavenly Stems (or Celestial Stems) are a system of ordinals indigenous to China and used throughout East Asia, first attested c. 1250 BCE during the Shang dynasty as the names of the ten days of the week. They were also used in Shang-era rituals in the names of dead family members, who were offered sacrifices on the corresponding day of the Shang week. Stems are no longer used as names for the days of the week, but have acquired many other uses. Most prominently, they have been used in conjunction with the associated set of twelve Earthly Branches in the compound sexagenary cycle, an important feature of historical Chinese calendars.^[1]

Heavenly Stems
Chinese name
Chinese	天干
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin tiāngān Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization tīn gōn Jyutping tin1 gon1 Southern Min Hokkien POJ thian-kan
Vietnamese name
Vietnamese alphabet	thiên can
Chữ Hán	天干
Korean name
Hangul	천간
Hanja	天干
Transcriptions Revised Romanization cheongan

Origin

Some scholars believe the Heavenly Stems, and the associated ten-day week, are connected to a story from Chinese mythology where ten suns appeared in the sky, whose order comprised a ten-day cycle (旬; xún); the Heavenly Stems are conjectured to be the names for each of these ten suns.^[2] They were found in the given names of the kings of the Shang in their temple names. These consisted of a relational term ('father', 'mother', 'grandfather', 'grandmother') which was added to one of the ten Stems—e.g. 'Grandfather Jia'. These names are often found on Shang bronzes designating whom the bronze was honoring (and on which day of the week their rites would have been performed, that day matching the day designated by their name). The sinologist David Keightley, who specialized in ancient Chinese bronzes, believes that the Stems were chosen posthumously through divination.^[3] Some historians think the ruling class of the Shang had ten clans, but it is not clear whether their society reflected the myth or vice versa. Their association with the concepts of yin and yang and wuxing developed following the collapse of the Shang.

Jonathan Smith has proposed that the heavenly stems predate the Shang and originally referred to ten asterisms along the ecliptic, of which their oracle bone script characters were drawings; he identifies similarities between these and asterisms in the later Four Images and Twenty-Eight Mansions systems. These would have been used to track the moon's progression along its monthly circuit, in conjunction with the earthly branches referring to its phase.^[4]

The literal meanings of the characters were, and are now, roughly as follows.^[5] Among the modern meanings, those deriving from the characters' position in the sequence of Heavenly Stems are in italics.

Heavenly Stem		Meaning
		Original	Additional
1	甲	'turtle shell'	'first' (ordinal) 'methyl group' 'helmet' 'armor' words related to beetles, crustaceans, fingernails, toenails
2	乙	'fish guts'	'second' (ordinal) 'ethyl group' 'twist'
3	丙	'fish tail'	'third' (ordinal) 'bright' 'fire'
4	丁	'nail' (fastener)	'fourth' (ordinal) 'male adult' 'robust' 'T-shaped' 'to strike' a surname
5	戊	'halberd'	—
6	己	'thread on a loom'	'self'
7	庚	'evening star' (Venus)	'age' (of a person)
8	辛	'to offend superiors'	'bitter' 'piquant' 'toilsome'
9	壬	'burden'	'to shoulder' 'to trust with office'
10	癸	'grass for libation'	—

Current usage

The Heavenly Stems remain widely used as ordinals throughout the Sinosphere, similarly to the way the alphabet is used in languages like English.

• In Korea and Japan, the Heavenly Stems are used in legal documents: the Korean renderings gap (甲) and eul (乙) are used to indicate the larger and the smaller parties to a legal contract, respectively—and are sometimes used as synonyms for such. This use is also common in the Korean IT industry.

• The Chinese mathematician Li Shanlan (1810–1882) developed a system using the Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches to stand in for Latin letters in their use as labels for mathematical variables. In Li's system, the letters a – j are represented by the ten Heavenly Stems, k – v are represented by the twelve Earthly Branches, and the final four letters w, x, y and z are represented by 物 ('matter'), 天 ('Heaven'), 地 ('earth'), and 人 ('human') respectively.^[6] The ⼝ 'MOUTH' radical may be added to any of the aforementioned character to indicate the upper case form of the corresponding letter: e.g. a → 甲, A → 呷; d → 丁, D → 叮.^[7]
• Names for organic chemicals—e.g. methanol (甲醇; jiǎchún), ethanol (乙醇; yǐchún).
• Diseases—e.g. Hepatitis A (甲型肝炎; jiǎxíng gānyán), Hepatitis B: (乙型肝炎; yǐxíng gānyán).
• Sports leagues—e.g. Serie A is rendered as 意甲; Yìjiǎ.
• Students' grades in Taiwan, with the yōu (優; 'excellence') inserted prior to the Heavenly Stems in the list—i.e. the American grades A, B, C, D and F correspond to 優, 甲, 乙, 丙 and 丁.
• In astrology and feng shui, the Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches form the four pillars of Chinese metaphysics in Qimen Dunjia and Daliuren.

Table

	Heavenly Stem	Sinitic												Japanese		Korean	Manchu	Vietnamese	Yin and yang (陰陽)	Wuxing (五行)	Wuxing correlations
		Standard Mandarin		Nanjingnese	Sichuanese	Cantonese	Teochew	Hokkien	Fuzhounese	Shanghainese	Suzhounese	Middle Chinese	Old Chinese	on'yomi	kun'yomi
		Zhuyin	Pinyin	Langjin Pinin	Sichuanese Pinyin	Jyutping	Peng'im	POJ	BUC	Wugniu		Zhengzhang		Romaji		Revised	Möllendorff
1	甲	ㄐㄧㄚˇ	jiǎ	ja⁵	jia²	gaap³	gah⁴	kap	gák	ciaq⁷	ciaeq⁷	kˠap	*kraːb	こう (kō)	きのえ (kinoe)	갑 (gap)	ᠨᡳᠣᠸᠠᠩᡤᡳᠶᠠᠨ (niowanggiyan, "green")	giáp	陽 (yang)	木 (wood)	東 East
2	乙	ㄧˇ	yǐ	i⁵	yi²	jyut⁶	ig⁴	it	ék	iq⁷	iq⁷	ʔˠiɪt	*qriɡ	おつ (otsu)	きのと (kinoto)	을 (eul)	ᠨᡳᠣᡥᠣᠨ (niohon)	ất	陰 (yin)
3	丙	ㄅㄧㄥˇ	bǐng	bin²	bin³	bing²	bian²	péng	bīng	pin⁵	pin³	pˠiæŋX	*pqraŋʔ	へい (hei)	ひのえ (hinoe)	병 (byeong)	ᡶᡠᠯᡤᡳᠶᠠᠨ (fulgiyan, "red")	bính	陽 (yang)	火 (fire)	南 South
4	丁	ㄉㄧㄥ	dīng	din¹	din¹	ding¹	dêng¹	teng	dĭng	tin¹	tin¹	teŋ	*teːŋ	てい (tei)	ひのと (hinoto)	정 (jeong)	ᡶᡠᠯᠠᡥᡡᠨ (fulahūn)	đinh	陰 (yin)
5	戊	ㄨˋ	wù	u⁴	wu⁴	mou⁶	bhou⁷	bō͘	muô	wu⁶	vu⁶	məwH	*mus	ぼ (bo)	つちのえ (tsuchinoe)	무 (mu)	ᠰᡠᠸᠠᠶᠠᠨ (suwayan, "yellow")	mậu	陽 (yang)	土 (earth)	中 Middle
6	己	ㄐㄧˇ	jǐ	ji³	ji³	gei²	gi²	kí	gī	ci⁵	ci³	kɨX	*kɯʔ	き (ki)	つちのと (tsuchinoto)	기 (gi)	ᠰᠣᡥᠣᠨ (sohon)	kỷ	陰 (yin)
7	庚	ㄍㄥ	gēng	gen¹	gen¹	gang¹	gên¹	keng	gĕng	kan¹	ken¹	kˠæŋ	*kraːŋ	こう (kō)	かのえ (kanoe)	경 (gyeong)	ᡧᠠᠨᠶᠠᠨ (šanyan, "white")	canh	陽 (yang)	金 (metal)	西 West
8	辛	ㄒㄧㄣ	xīn	sin¹	xin¹	san¹	sing¹	sin	sĭng	shin¹	sin¹	siɪn	*siŋ	しん (shin)	かのと (kanoto)	신 (sin)	ᡧᠠᡥᡡᠨ (šahūn)	tân	陰 (yin)
9	壬	ㄖㄣˊ	rén	ren²	ren²	jam⁴	rim⁶	lîm	ìng	gnin⁶	gnin²	ȵiɪm	*njɯm	じん (jin)	みずのえ (mizunoe)	임 (im)	ᠰᠠᡥᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ (sahaliyan, "black")	nhâm	陽 (yang)	水 (water)	北 North
10	癸	ㄍㄨㄟˇ	guǐ	guei³	gui⁴	gwai³	gui³	kúi	gúi	gue⁶	kue³	kiuɪX	*kʷilʔ	き (ki)	みずのと (mizunoto)	계 (gye)	ᠰᠠᡥᠠᡥᡡᠨ (sahahūn)	quý	陰 (yin)

The Japanese names of the Heavenly Stems are based on their corresponding Wuxing elements (e.g. ki for "wood", mizu for "water"), followed by the possessive/attributive particle の (no) and the word え (e, "older sibling") or the word と (to, "younger sibling", originally おと oto). The Manchu names are based on their respective elements' colors.

See also

• Chinese numerals
• Organic nomenclature in Chinese

Notes

1. Jonathan Smith 2011.
2. Allan 1991, pp. 36–38.
3. Kuwayama, George, ed. (1991). "The Quest for Eternity in Ancient China: The Dead, Their Gifts, Their Names". Ancient Mortuary Traditions of China: Papers on Chinese Ceramic Funerary sculptures. Far Eastern Art Council, Los Angeles County Museum of Art. pp. 16–17. ISBN 978-0-87587-157-8.
4. Smith, Jonathan M. (2011). "The Di Zhi 地支 as Lunar Phases and Their Coordination with the Tian Gan 天干 as Ecliptic Asterisms in a China before Anyang". Early China. 33: 199–228. doi:10.1017/S0362502800000274. S2CID 132200641. Retrieved January 29, 2022.
5. William McNaughton. Reading and Writing Chinese. Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, 1979.
6. (pages 147 and 148)
7. Yang Ziqiang (楊自強) (2017). 李善蘭: 改變近代中國的科學家 (in Chinese). 獨立作家－新銳文創. pp. 147–148. ISBN 978-986-94864-1-5.

Bibliography

• Allan, Sarah (1991). The Shape of the Turtle: Myth, Art, and Cosmos in Early China. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-0459-1.
• Barnard, Noel (1986). "A New Approach to the Study of Clan-Sign Inscriptions of Shang". In Kwang-chih Chang (ed.). Studies of Shang Archaeology: Selected Papers from the International Conference on Shang Civilization. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. pp. 141–206. ISBN 978-0-300-03578-0.
• Tsien, Tsuen-hsuin; Chang, Kwang-chih (1978). "T'ien kan: a key to the history of the Shang". In Roy, David (ed.). Ancient China: Studies in Early Civilization. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press. pp. 13–42. ISBN 978-962-201-144-1.
• Chang Tai-Ping (1978). "The role of the t'ien-kan ti-chih terms in the naming system of the Yin". Early China. 4: 45–48. doi:10.1017/S0362502800005897. S2CID 161397647.
• Keightley, David (2000). The Ancestral Landscape: Time, Space, and Community in Late Shang China, ca. 1200-1045 B.C. Berkeley: Center for Chinese Studies, University of California. ISBN 978-1-55729-070-0.
• Norman, Jerry (1985). "A Note on the Origins of the Chinese Duodenary Cycle". In Thurgood, Graham (ed.). Linguistics of the Sino-Tibetan Area: The State of the Art: Papers Presented to Paul K. Benedict for his 71st Birthday. Canberra: Australian National University. pp. 85–89. ISBN 0-85883-319-0.
• Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (1995). "The Ganzhi as Phonograms". Early China News. 8: 29–30. ISSN 0362-5028. JSTOR 23351501.
• Smith, Adam (2011). "The Chinese sexagenary cycle and the ritual origins of the calendar". In Steele, John (ed.). Calendars and Years II: Astronomy and Time in the Ancient and Medieval World (PDF). Oxford: Oxbow. pp. 1–37. ISBN 978-1-84217-987-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-08-13. Retrieved 2011-06-10.

External links

• "Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches". Hong Kong Observatory. Archived from the original on 2020-06-21. Retrieved 2018-11-04.